Transcript Chapter_5_Ivey_7th_ed

Intentional Interviewing and
Counseling:
Facilitating Client Development in a
Multicultural Society
7th Edition
Allen E. Ivey
University of Massachusetts
Mary Bradford Ivey
Microtraining Associates
Carlos P. Zalaquett
University of South Florida
Copyright © 2009
Chapter 5
Observation Skills
You can observe a lot by watching.
Yogi Berra
In working with patients (clients), if you miss those nuances-if you misread what they may be trying to communicate, if
you misjudge their character, if you don't notice when
their emotions, gestures, or tone of voice don't fit what
they are saying, if you don't catch the fleeting sadness or
anger that lingers on their face for only a few milliseconds
as they mention someone or something you might
otherwise not know was important--you will lose your
patients (clients).
Or worse still, you don't.
Drew Weston, 2007
Chapter goals
▲ The aim of this chapter is to increase your ability to
observe what occurs between you and your clients
verbally and nonverbally in the interview.
▲ Observation skills guide you to key issues in the here
and now of the interview.
▲ In addition, they help you respond appropriately to both
individual and multicultural differences.
Competency objectives
▲ Nonverbal behavior. How do we make meaning of
nonverbal behavior?
▲ Verbal behavior. How do you and your clients use
language?
▲ Discrepancies and conflict. Much of interviewing is about
working through conflict and coping with the inevitable
stressful incongruities we all face.
▲ Styles associated with varying individual and cultural
ways of expression. How can you flex intentionally and
avoid stereotyping in your observation?
The Case of Horace
When called to the witness stand, Horace held his hat in
his hand, spoke quietly to the judge and took his oath.
But as the judge questioned him, his eyes started to
wander—all about the room. He did not look at the judge
at all. The judge became irritated by what he saw as a
lack of attention and spoke sharply to Horace about his
lack of respect toward the bench. Horace was obviously
embarrassed, but didn’t know what to do. In fact, as he
became increasingly nervous, he only looked away
more. The judge was very unhappy with Horace.
The Case of Horace
▲Reflection Questions
 What sense do you make of what is happening here?
 Is Horace being disrespectful?
 What would you do in a situation like this if you were
sitting in court?
INTRODUCTION: KEEPING WATCH
ON THE INTERVIEW
Activity
▲ What should you observe about client behavior in the
interview?
 Brainstorm from what you already know and make a list.
▲ What about you? How are you affecting the client
verbally and nonverbally?
 Take a brief inventory of your own nonverbal style.
 Get feedback from others.
INTRODUCTION: KEEPING WATCH
ON THE INTERVIEW
▲ If you use observation skills as define here, you can predict how
clients respond.
Observation Skills: Observe your
own and the client’s verbal and
nonverbal behavior. Anticipate
individual and multicultural
differences in nonverbal and
verbal behavior. Carefully and
selectively feedback
observations and to the client as
topics for discussion.
Predicted result: Observations
provide specific data validating or
invalidating what is happening in
the session and provide guidance
for use of various microskills and
strategies. The smoothly flowing
interview will often demonstrate
movement symmetry or
complimentarity. Movement
dissynchrony provides a clear
clue that you are not “in tune”
with the client.
What should you observe about client
behavior in the interview?
Activity
▲ From your own life experience you are already aware of
many things that are important for a counselor or
interviewer to notice.
▲ Make a list of what you already know.
Self-observation in the interview?
Activity: Looking at your way of being can be equally as,
or more important than observing the client.
▲ Take a brief inventory of your own nonverbal style.
 You might begin by thinking back to your natural style of
attending, but expand those self-observations.
▲ What is your interpersonal style and how might it affect
your relationship with others?
▲ Write your observations and then compare what you find
with later examination of your own videos and feedback
that you obtain from others.
Observe attending patterns of clients.
▲ Non-verbal behavior
▲ Verbal behavior
▲ Discrepancies, incongruities, mixed messages,
contradictions and conflict
Observe Nonverbal Behavior
▲ Jiggling legs, making complete body shifts, or suddenly
closing one’s arms often indicate discomfort.
▲ Hand and arm gestures may give you an indication of
how you and the client are organizing things.
 Random, discrepant gestures may indicate confusion.
 A person seeking to control or organize things may move hands
and arms in straight lines and point fingers authoritatively.
▲ Smooth, flowing gestures, particularly those in harmony
with the gestures of others, such as family members,
friends, or the interviewer, may suggest openness.
Observe Verbal Behavior
▲ Language is basic for what we do.
▲ Four dimensions useful for direct verbal observation in
the session:
1. patterns of selective attention,
2. client key words,
3. “I” statements and “other” statements, and
4. abstract and concrete conversation.
Observe Conflict, Incongruencies, and
Discrepancies
▲ Careful observation of multiple types of discrepancies
give you a deeper understanding of where clients “really
are” in terms of their issues.
▲ Conflict is literally the “stuff” of counseling and is often
where you can help clients the most.
Observe Conflict, Incongruencies, and
Discrepancies
▲ Stress comes from internal and external conflict.
Examples of internal conflict and discrepancies include
indecision, guilt, depression, and anxiety.
▲ Examples of external conflict include interpersonal
relations, cultural oppression, and work.
▲ Of course, many of your clients will be dealing with both
types of conflict.
Observing Individual and Multicultural Issues
in Verbal and Nonverbal Behavior
▲ Each culture has a different style of nonverbal
communication.
 Smiling is a sign of warmth in most cultures, but in some
situations it may indicate discomfort. Patterns of eye contact also
varies culturally.
▲ Be careful not to assign your own ideas about what is
“standard” and appropriate nonverbal communication.
▲ Study nonverbal communication patterns and their
variations.
▲ In the interview, changes in style may be as, or more
important than finding specific meanings in
communication style.
Example Interview: Is The Issue Difficulty In
Studying Or Racial Harassment?
Kyle Yellowhorse
▲Reflection Questions
 What are your thoughts about this interview?
 Was Derek an effective counselor?
 What would you do in a situation like this if you were
the counselor?
Example Interview: Is The Issue Difficulty In
Studying Or Racial Harassment?
▲ Alternatives that may help you as you begin sessions:
 patience and a good sense of humor;
 willingness to disclose, share stories,
 and talk about neutral subjects such as sports or the weather.
▲ Early exploration of positive assets is useful at times:
 “Before we start, I’d like to get to know a little bit more about you. Could
you tell me specifically about something from your past that you feel
particularly good about?”
 “What are some of the things you do well?”
 “What types of things do you like?”
▲ As time permits, consider conducting a full wellness review.
INSTRUCTIONAL READING
▲Nonverbal Behavior
 Facial Expression
 Body Language
 Acculturation Issues in Nonverbal Behavior: Avoid
Stereotyping
INSTRUCTIONAL READING
Nonverbal Behavior
Facial Expressions
▲ Smiling is a good indicator of interviewer’s warmth and
caring.
 Important for developing relationship
▲ Client Nonverbals give you important clues to what he or
she is experiencing and may include:
 Brow furrow, lips tighten or loosen, flushing, smiling at inappropriate
times. Also, subtle color changes in the face as blood flow reflects
emotional reactions. Breathing may speed up or stop temporarily. The
lips may swell and pupils may dilate or contract.
▲ To notice nonverbal behavior takes work and practice.
INSTRUCTIONAL READING
Nonverbal Behavior
Body Language
▲ People who are communicating well often “mirror” each
other’s body language = movement synchrony.
▲ Movement complementarity refers to paired movements
that may not be identical but are still harmonious.
▲ Some experts deliberately “mirror” their clients.
 Matching body language, breathing rates, and key words of the
client can heighten interviewer understanding of how the client
perceives and experiences the world.
INSTRUCTIONAL READING
Nonverbal Behavior
Body Language
▲ Particularly important are discrepancies in nonverbal
behavior = movement dissynchrony.
▲ Watch for times when clients suddenly change body
posture.
▲ Lack of harmony in movement is common between
people who disagree markedly or even between those
who may not be aware they have subtle conflicts.
INSTRUCTIONAL READING
Nonverbal Behavior
Acculturation Issues in Nonverbal Behavior: Avoid
Stereotyping
▲ Acculturation is the degree to which an individual has
adapted the norms or standard way of behaving in a
given culture.
INSTRUCTIONAL READING
Nonverbal Behavior
Acculturation Issues in Nonverbal Behavior: Avoid
Stereotyping
▲ “…no two people will be acculturated to general
standards in the same way.
▲
In effect, ‘normative behavior’ does not exist in any
one individual or even in one area of diversity…
stereotyping individuals or groups needs to be avoided
at all costs.”
INSTRUCTIONAL READING
Nonverbal Behavior
Acculturation Issues in Nonverbal Behavior: Avoid
Stereotyping
▲ From diverse individuals and groups, note differing
 Meanings of basic body movements,
 Uses of appropriate touch,
 Uses of space between individuals,
 Locations and seating arrangements
INSTRUCTIONAL READING
▲Verbal Behavior
 Selective attention (yours and client’s)
 Key Words
 Concreteness vs. abstraction
 “I” and “other” statements
INSTRUCTIONAL READING
Verbal Behavior
Selective Attention
Your personal style and theory will affect
how clients respond in the session and
talk about issues.
INSTRUCTIONAL READING
Verbal Behavior
Selective Attention
▲ What are your patterns of selective attention?
▲ Clients tend to talk about what counselors are interested in and
willing to hear.
 How do you direct / influence the client?
 What is your “theory of choice?”
 What are you comfortable discussing with the client?
▲ Client is also important.
 What does the client select to discuss?
 To what topic(s) does the client respond?
INSTRUCTIONAL READING
Verbal Behavior
Key Words
▲ Certain words appear again and again in clients
descriptions. Helping them explore the facts, feelings,
and meanings underlying those words may be useful.
▲ Repeated words / phrases
▲ Verbal underlining with vocal emphasis
▲ Topic repetition or changes
▲ Positive / negative framing of topic
INSTRUCTIONAL READING
Verbal Behavior
Concreteness vs. Abstraction
▲ Concrete / Situational Style.
 Many adults and most children provide specifics and examples.
 May have difficulty in reflecting on self and others
▲ Abstract / Formal Operational Style.
 Some adults and rarely children use self-analysis and reflection.
 At times, so abstract that specifics are not discussed
Concreteness vs. Abstraction
Concreteness vs. Abstraction
▲ Recognize your own and client’s style.
▲ Match client’s style and join client where he/she is.
▲ Help abstract clients get specific.
▲ Help concrete clients get abstract and pattern oriented.
Concreteness vs. Abstraction
▲ The Abstraction Ladder
•
Clients here tend to talk in a more reflective fashion, analyzing
their thoughts and behaviors. They are often good at selfanalysis. Clients high on the abstraction ladder may not easily
provide concrete examples of their issues. They may prefer to
analyze, rather than to act. Self-oriented, abstract theories,
such as person-centered or psychodynamic, are often useful
with this style.
•
Clients who talk using this style tend to provide specific
examples and stories, often with considerable detail. You’ll
hear what they see, hear, and feel. Helping some clients to
reflect on their situations and issues may be difficult. In
general, they will look to the counselor for specific actions that
they can follow. Concrete behavioral theories may be
preferred.
INSTRUCTIONAL READING
Verbal Behavior
“I” and “Other” Statements
▲ Reveal client’s views of themselves in relation to others.
▲ May be predominately positive or negative.
▲ Need to achieve a balance between internal and external
responsibility for life issues.
INSTRUCTIONAL READING
Verbal Behavior
“I” and “Other” Statements
▲ Learn other culture’s uses of “I” (self), other, and
relationship language references.
▲ Multicultural differences in the use of “I”
 Only a few languages capitalize “I”
 Vietnamese has no reference to “I”.
INSTRUCTIONAL READING
Discrepancies and Conflict
▲ “My son is perfect, but he just doesn’t respect me.”
▲ “I deserve to pass the course,” from a student who did
no homework and didn’t pass the final.
▲ “That question does not bother me,” said with a flushed
face and closed fist.
INSTRUCTIONAL READING
Discrepancies and Conflict
Conflict Internal to the Client
Discrepancies in:
▲ Non-verbal behaviors
▲ Verbal statements
▲ Choking, hesitation, stammer
▲ What one says and does
▲ Statements and non-verbal behavior
INSTRUCTIONAL READING
Discrepancies and Conflict
Conflict Between the Client and the External World
Discrepancies between:
▲ People
 Interpersonal conflict; differing styles
▲ Clients and a situation
▲ Nose wipes and lint picking
▲ Goals
INSTRUCTIONAL READING
Discrepancies and Conflict
Conflict Between You and the Client
 Be aware when your perspective(s) conflict with your client.
▲ Values and/or goals
▲ Ethnic / cultural experiences
▲ Gender / age differences
▲ Learning / personality styles and approach
SUMMARY: OBSERVATION SKILLS
▲ The interviewer seeks to observe client verbal and
nonverbal behavior with an eye to identifying
discrepancies, mixed messages, incongruity, and
conflict.
▲ Counseling and therapy in particular, but also
interviewing, frequently focus on problems and their
resolution.
▲ A discrepancy is often a problem.
▲ Also, discrepancies are part of life and may even be
enjoyed.
 Humor, for example, is based on conflict and discrepancies.
Key Points
Importance of observation skills
▲ The self-aware interviewer is constantly aware of the
client and of the here-and-now interaction in the session.
Clients tell us about their world by nonverbal and verbal
means. Observation skills are a critical tool in
determining how the client interprets the world. Simple,
careful observation of the interview is basic. What can
you see, hear, and feel from the client’s world? Note
your impact on the client: How does what you say
change or relate to the client’s behavior? Use these data
to adjust your microskill or interviewing technique.
Key Points Nonverbal Behavior
Attending Behavior. Your own and client eye-contact
patterns, body language, and vocal qualities are, of
course, important.
Shifts and changes in these may be indicative of client
interest or discomfort.
Facial clues are especially important.
Larger scale body movements may indicate shifts in
reactions, thoughts, or the topic.
Key Points—Verbal Behavior
Verbal tracking for both you and the client is particularly
important.
Topic jumps. At what point does the topic change and who
initiates the change?
Abstraction ladder? If the client is concreteor abstract, are
you matching her or his language?
“I” statements or “other” statements?
Key Points—Verbal Behavior--2
Do the client’s negative statements become more positive
as counseling progresses?
Clients tend to use certain key words to describe their
behavior and situations; noting these descriptive words
and repetitive themes is helpful
Key Points—Conflict/Discrepancies
Manifest in many and perhaps all interviews.
Effective interviewers identify these discrepancies, name them
appropriately, and often, feed them back to the client.
May be between nonverbal behaviors, between two statements,
between what clients say and what they do, between
incompatible goals, between statements and nonverbal
behavior.
They may also represent a conflict between people or between a
client and a situation. And your own behaviors may be
positively or negatively discrepant.
Key Points
Multicultural issues
▲ Note individual and cultural differences in verbal and
nonverbal behavior.
▲ Always remember that some individuals and some
cultures may have a meaning for a movement or use of
language that is different from your own personal
meaning.
▲ Use caution in your interpretation of nonverbal behavior.
Key Points
Movement harmonics
▲Movement harmonics. When two people are
talking together and communicating well, they
often exhibit movement synchrony or movement
complementarity in that their bodies move in a
harmonious fashion.
▲When people are not communicating clearly,
movement dissynchrony will appear: body shifts,
jerks, and pulling away are readily apparent.
COMPETENCY PRACTICE EXERCISE AND
SELF-ASSESSMENT
Chapter 5
Individual Practice
Group practice
Self-assessment
Individual Practice
Exercise 1: Observation of Nonverbal Patterns
IIC


Observe 10 minutes of a counseling interview, a television
interview, or any two people talking. Videotape so that
repeated viewing is possible.
Analyze:
 Visual/eye contact patterns. Do people maintain eye contact more
while talking or while listening? Does the “client” break eye contact
more often while discussing certain subjects than others? Can you
observe changes in pupil dilation as an expression of interest?
 Vocal qualities. Note speech rate and changes in intonation or
volume. Give special attention to speech “hitches” or hesitations.
Individual Practice
Exercise 1: Observation of Nonverbal Patterns
IIC
 Attentive body language. Note gestures, shifts of posture, leaning,
patterns of breathing, and use of space. Give special attention to
facial expressions such as changes in skin color, flushing, and lip
movements. Note appropriate and inappropriate smiling, furrowing
of the brow, and so on.
 Movement harmonics. Note places where movement synchrony
and echoing occurred. Did you observe examples of movement
dissynchrony?

Where possible, observe your own videotape.
Individual Practice
Exercise 1: Observation of Nonverbal Patterns
IIC

One useful approach is to observe 5 to 10 minutes of
interaction several times. Separate behavioral observations
from impressions on the Behavioral Observation Form.
 Present context of observation. Briefly summarize what is
happening verbally at the time of the observation. Number each
observation.
 Observe the interview for the following and describe what you see
as precisely and concretely as possible: visual/eye contact patterns,
vocal qualities, attentive body language, and movement harmonics.

Record your impressions.
Individual Practice
Exercise 1: Observation of Nonverbal Patterns
IIC
Additional Discussion Questions
•
What interpretations of the observation do you make?
•
How do you make sense of each observation unit?
•
And—most important—are you cautious in drawing
conclusions from what you have seen and noticed?
Individual Practice Exercise 2:
Observation of Verbal Behavior and Discrepancies
IIC

Observe the same interview again, but this time pay special
attention to verbal dimensions and discrepancies.
 include nonverbal dimensions

Separate observations from your interpretation and
impressions.

Consider the following issues and provide concrete
evidence for each of your decisions as to what is occurring
in the session.
Individual Practice Exercise 2:
Observation of Verbal Behavior and Discrepancies
IIC



Verbal tracking and selective attention. Pay special attention
to topic jumps or shifts. Who initiates them? Do you see any
pattern of special topic interest and/or avoidance? What
does the listener seem to want to hear?
Key words. What are the key words of each person in the
communication?
Abstract or concrete conversation. Is this conversation
about patterns or about specifics? Are the people involved
approaching this issue in a similar fashion.
Individual Practice Exercise 2:
Observation of Verbal Behavior and Discrepancies
IIC



“I” statements. Consider each person. What is he or she
trying to say from an “I” statement framework? Are any “I”
statements present?
“Other” statements. How aware is this individual of
connections with others? How accurate are those
perceptions?
Discrepancies. What incongruities do you note in the
behavior in either person you observe? Do you locate any
discrepancies between the two? What issues of conflict
might be important?
Individual Practice. Exercise 3:
Examining Your Own Verbal and Nonverbal Styles
IIC




Videotape yourself with another person in a real
interview or conversation for at least 20 minutes.
Do not make this a role-play.
Then view your own verbal and nonverbal behavior
and that of the person you are talking with in the
same detail as in Exercises 1 and 2.
What do you learn about yourself?
Individual Practice. Exercise 4:
Classifying Statements as Concrete or Abstract
IIC
Classify each statement as primarily concrete or primarily abstract. (Answers
to exercise are at end chapter.) Circle C (concrete) or A (abstract) below:
C
C
C
C
C
C
A 1.
A 2.
A 3.
A 4.
A 5.
A 6.
C
C
C
C
A 7.
A 8.
A 9.
A 10.
I cry all day long. I didn’t sleep last night. I can’t eat.
I feel rotten about myself lately.
I feel very guilty.
Sorry I’m late for the session. Traffic was very heavy.
I feel really awkward on dates. I’m a social dud.
Last night my date said that I wasn’t much fun. Then I
started to cry.
My father is tall, has red hair, and yells a lot.
My father is very hard to get along with. He’s difficult.
My family is very loving. We have a pattern of sharing.
My mom just sent me a box of cookies.
Group Practice. Exercise 5:
Systematic Group Practice on Observation Skills
IIC



Separate into groups of three or four.
Select a group leader.
Assign roles for the first practice session. Interviewer
 Interviewer
 Client
 Observer, verbal behavior
 Observer, nonverbal behavior (does not apply for triads)
Group Practice. Exercise 5:
Systematic Group Practice on Observation Skills
IIC

Select and plan a topic.
 The suggested topic for the practice role-play is “Something or
someone with whom I have a present conflict or have had a past
conflict.” Alternative topics include the following:
 My positive and negative feelings toward my parents or other significant
persons
 The mixed blessings of my work, home community, or present living
situation

Conduct a 6-minute practice session.
 Behave as naturally as possible discussing a real
situation.
Group Practice. Exercise 5:
Systematic Group Practice on Observation Skills
IIC


Review the taped practice session.
Review the practice session and provide feedback for 14
minutes.
 Stop the audiotape or videotape periodically and re view key items
for increased clarity.
 Observers complete Observation Feedback Form (in this Ch.)
throughout the session.
 Client give feedback via the Client Feedback Form of Chapter1.

Rotate roles and repeat the process.
CLIENT FEEDBACK
FORM
IIC
(from Ch. 1)
In practice sessions, it
is very helpful to get
immediate feedback.
As you practice the
microskills, use the
Client Feedback Form.
FORM
IIC
Observation Feedback Form (in this Ch.)
In practice sessions, it is
very helpful to get immediate
feedback. As you practice
the microskills, we
encourage you to use the
feedback forms provided.
We provide feedback forms
for each specific skill.
Those providing feedback…
Remember:
▲ Receiver is in charge.
▲ Feedback is for
receiver’s development
Your feedback should be:
▲ Concrete
▲ Specific
▲ Focus on what receiver
can change.
▲ Lean
▲ Check out how
feedback was received.
▲ Precise
▲ Non-Judgmental
PORTFOLIO OF COMPETENCE
What Is Your Level of Mastery of this Skill?
IIC
 Observation is one of the core competencies of
intentional interviewing and counseling.
 Use the following as a checklist to evaluate your present
level of mastery.
 Check those dimensions that you currently are able to
do. Those that remain unchecked can serve as future
goals.
PORTFOLIO OF COMPETENCE
IIC
SELF-ASSESSMENT
As you work through this chapter, please think about you’re
ability to observe both yourself and what is occurring around
you. The effective interviewer notices client nonverbal and
nonverbal behavior, but does not overanalyze or overreact.
The observing interviewer also gives considerable attention to
noticing oneself.
 What fits for you? What doesn’t? Where is your
uniqueness?
SELF-ASSESSMENT
Exercise: Self-Evaluation of Observation Competencies
IIC
Go to Chapter 5 for a full description of these levels
 Level 1: Identification and classification.
 Level 2: Basic competence.
 Level 3: Intentional competence.
 Level 4: Psychoeducational teaching competence.
SELF-ASSESSMENT
Exercise: Self-Evaluation of Observation Competencies
IIC
Level 1. Identification and Classification
Note:
Nonverbal attending behaviors (and shifts)
Movement harmonics and echoing
Verbal tracking and selective attention
Your and client’s key words
Concrete and abstract distinctions.
SELF-ASSESSMENT
Exercise: Self-Evaluation of Observation Competencies
IIC
Level 2. Basic Competence
Notice verbal and nonverbal behavioral discrepancies
In the client
In yourself
Between yourself and the client
SELF-ASSESSMENT
Exercise: Self-Evaluation of Observation Competencies
IIC
Level 3. Intentional Competence
Mirror nonverbal patterns.
Shift or focus topic(s) by identifying and using client’s
selective attention patterns.
Feedback “I” and “other” statements.
Match your language system with others.
None and feedback client’s discrepancies.
Note and shift your own discrepancies.
SELF-ASSESSMENT
Exercise: Self-Evaluation of Observation Competencies
IIC
Level 4. Psychoeducational Teaching Competence
Teach clients in a helping session the social skills of
nonverbal and verbal observation and the ability to note
discrepancies.
Teach small groups the above skills.
DETERMINING YOUR OWN
STYLE AND THEORY:
CRITICAL SELF-REFLECTION
ON OBSERVATION SKILLS
CRITICAL SELF-REFLECTION
ON OBSERVATION SKILLS
This chapter focused on the importance of verbal and
nonverbal observation skills and you experienced a
variety of exercises designed to enhance your
awareness in this area.
 What single idea stood out for you among all those presented in
this chapter, in class, or through informal learning?
 What stands out for you as likely to be important as a guide
toward your next steps.
 What are your thoughts on multicultural differences?
 What other points in this chapter struck you as important?
 How might you use ideas in this chapter to begin the process of
establishing your own style and theory?
Write your ideas in your journal.