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Women & Politics and Gender in the Middle East Religious Women’s Attires Niqab—Saudi Arabia, Yemen, elsewhere Chador—Iran & some other Shi`a communities Hijab--Rest of MENA Burqa--Afghanistan Interpretations of the Veil • Restrictive device so men can control (dominant Orientalist notion) • Indicative of class, age, ethnicity, or region (Yemen reading) • Veil as a tool of control by the state to advertise power of their belief systems (Tunisia restrictions, Kuwait (10/09) requires it… being challenged) • Expression of opposition to reduce the leverage of the occupier (ex: Algeria) • Protection from harassment and interference by others. Statement not to be objectified. No object for consumerism. • Statement of identity, especially where Muslims are minority • Social empowerment – control over oneself. Choice. Huda Sha’arawi Patriarchy • a system that privileges males and elders and justifies this privilege in kinship terms. This gives males legal and economic power over family members. • Extension of male dominance over women in society in general. • Represents a gender and age hierarchy based on the household as a productive unit, has been seriously challenged in recent decades by social transformations • Androcentrism – an ontology in which ‘the masculine’ is at the center and ‘the feminine’ is peripheral. – Males are the focus of one’s world view and understanding of culture and history, while women are understood in relation to males. • Patrilineality, Patrilocality, Endogamy Patriarchal system • Public: – – – – – Public office Court testimony Dress codes Segregated work spaces Legal limitations on movement • Private (mostly personal status): – – – – – Child custody Divorce/marriage laws Inheritance Freedom of movement & employment Honor killings Factors that Erode Patriarchy • • • • • • • Wage labor opportunities outside household Breakup of extended family (patrilocality) Increasing age of marriage Inter-marriage (vs. endogamy) Rise in education levels Rural to urban migration Quotas in legislatures Women in Islam • • • • • • • • • • Adam & Eve created together (Eve not sole receiver of blame) Female infanticide prohibited by Islam Limits marriage to four women by men – if treated equally Women negotiate contract of marriage (legal contract vs. sacrament) Marriage gift goes to wife, not family (mahr) Women’s right to refuse prospective husband Women have right to own and inherit property Women can not lead prayer Women’s restrictions on divorce (justified to Qadi) Women worth half of a witness in court How are women involved in political processes in MENA? Symbols of national honor Often mothers creating power in numbers Fighters supporting national liberation & revolutionary movements Women’s branches of political parties Members of political parties & Groups Women’s organizations created in state institutions Participation in independent organizations (charitable societies and NGOs) Islamic and Secular Feminisms • Key Question: what are the best approaches to bring about policies of equal rights for women in Islamic states and other Muslim communities? •The Activist’s Paradox (apologetic/complacent vs. Arab-bashing ‘self-hatred’) • Secular Feminism: – Authentic as indigenous, but often seen as imposed – Some conflict w/ Islamic feminism • Claim of Superiority – “culture of misery” in discourse rejects Agency – Passive, docile, victim • Ex: N.O.W. during Gulf War • “Excessive covering” vs. Material Exploitation – Is one more repulsive or unforgivable than the other? Islamic and Secular Feminisms (cont.) • Key Question: what are the best approaches to bring about policies of equal rights for women in Islamic states and other Muslim communities? • Islamic Feminism: – Movement aimed at equal rights and legal protection of women rooted in Islamic discourse • Emphasize teachings of equality in Qu’ran, Hadith – Engagement with Islam is necessary in societies where many laws on personal status are based on religion (shari’a) – Mostly educated, professional women & therefore cannot be easily dismissed as irrelevant by secular feminists – Increasing visibility in mass media (previously domain of secular, middle-class women) Readings Discussion on Sexuality • Asad AbuKhalil • Characteristics of Present-day sexism •Persistence of Male dominance •Women missing from public space •Tolerance of homosexuality • Bruce Dunne “sexuality in political culture” • Dialmy – Contradictions and contraception • Suad Joseph – the nation-state and Gender • Pre-colonial and post-colonial • Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft The MENA region