Transcript AP Review - bobcat

AP Review
Percentage Devoted to Concepts


2-4%history
6-8%methods and approaches
 8-10%biological bases of behavior
 7-9%sensation and perception
 2-4%states of consciousness
 7-9%learning
 8-10%cognition
 7-9%motivation and emotion
 7-9%developmental psychology
 6-8%personality
 5-7%testing and individual differences
 7-9%abnormal psychology
 5-7%treatment of psychological disorders
 7-9%social psychology
Free Response

The free-response questions evaluate students'
mastery of scientific research principles and their
ability to make connections among constructs
from different psychological domains. Students
may be asked to analyze a general problem in
psychology (e.g., depression, adaptation) using
concepts from different theoretical frameworks
or subdomains in the field, or they may be asked
to design, analyze, or critique a research study.
Improve Your Memory
 Study repeatedly to boost recall
 Spend more time rehearsing or
actively thinking about the material
 Make material personally meaningful
 Use mnemonic devices
 associate with peg words--something
already stored
 make up story
 chunk--acronyms
Improve Your Memory
 Activate retrieval cues--mentally
recreate situation and mood
 Recall events while they are fresh-before you encounter misinformation
 Minimize interference
 Test your own knowledge
 rehearse
 determine what you do not yet
know
Multiple Memory
Systems
Weiten Text
Implicit vs. Explicit
 Implicit memory
 does not require intentional remembering.
 part of the procedural memory system.
 Unconscious, accessed indirectly
 Unaffected by amnesia, age, drugs, length of retention,
interference
 Cerebellum
 Explicit memory
 does require intentional memory.
 Part of the declarative memory system.
 Conscious, accessed directly
 Best assessed with recall or recognition measures of
retention
 Hippocampus
Implicit vs. Explicit why are
they different?
 Some theorists believe it is because they
rely on different cognitive processes in
encoding and retrieval.
 Others because they are handled by
independent memory systems
(declarative and procedural)
Declarative vs. Procedural
 Declarative


Factual information (words, definitions,
faces, etc)
Hippocampus
 Procedural


Actions, skills, operations, conditioned
responses (riding bike, tying shoes)
Cerebellum
Semantic vs. Episodic Memory
 Episodic
Chronological recollections of personal
experiences
 Like an autobiography

 Semantic
General knowledge, not tied to time when
learned
 Like an encyclopedia

Semantic vs. Episodic Memory
 Due to amnesiac studies theorists
believe that they are separate systems.
 They are both divisions of declarative
memory
Storage:
Long-Term Memory
 Amnesia--the loss of memory
 Explicit Memory
 memory of facts and experiences that one can
consciously know and declare
 also called declarative memory
 hippocampus--neural center in limbic system that
helps process explicit memories for storage
 Implicit Memory
 retention independent of conscious recollection
 also called procedural memory
 cerebellum
Retrieval Cues
 Deja Vu (French)--already seen
 cues from the current situation may subconsciously
trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience
 "I've experienced this before."
 Mood-congruent Memory
 tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with
one’s current mood
 memory, emotions, or moods serve as retrieval cues
 State-dependent Memory
 what is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk, or
depressed) can more easily be remembered when in same
state
Forgetting as
Interference
 Learning some items may disrupt
retrieval of other information
 Proactive (forward acting) Interference
 disruptive effect of prior learning on recall
of new information
 Retroactive (backwards acting)
Interference
 disruptive effect of new learning on recall of
old information
Memory Construction
 We filter information and fill in missing
pieces
 Misinformation Effect
 incorporating misleading information into
one's memory of an event
 Source Amnesia
 attributing to the wrong source an event
that we experienced, heard about, read
about, or imagined (misattribution)
Behaviorism
 People–
Skinner, Pavlov, Watson
 Operant conditioning, classical
conditioning, observational learning
 Reinforcement, CR, CS, shaping,
modeling
 Treatments– systematic desensitization,
extinction, modeling, counter conditioning,
aversion therapy, biofeedback training,
stress inoculation
Psychoanalytical
 Freud,
Jung, Adler,
 Repression, suppression, unconscious
motives,
 Freud: Stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency,
& genital): personality structure-- id, ego,
superego– dreams= wish fulfillment
 Treatments– free association, dream
analysis, hypnosis, insight therapy,
interpretation of resistance/transference
Personality Structure
Ego
Conscious mind
Unconscious
mind
Superego
Id
 Freud’s idea
of the
mind’s
structure
Personality Development
Freud’s Psychosexual Stages
Stage
Focus
Oral
(0-18 months)
Pleasure centers on the mouth-sucking, biting, chewing
Anal
(18-36 months)
Pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder
elimination; coping with demands for
control
Pleasure zone is the genitals; coping with
incestuous sexual feelings
Phallic
(3-6 years)
Latency
(6 to puberty)
Dormant sexual feelings
Genital
(puberty on)
Maturation of sexual interests
Biological
 Chemical
& endocrine imbalances, genetic
& hereditary, brain damage,
 Drug treatments, exercise, nutrition
Cognitive
the way a person thinks – is it
negative, irrational, faulty, distorted, selfdefeating, unrealistic
 Treatment– rational-emotive therapy,
Beck’s cognitive therapy, changing ways of
thinking
 Study
The Cerebral Cortex
 Aphasia
 impairment of language, usually caused by left
hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area
(impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area
(impairing understanding)
 Broca’s Area
 an area of the left frontal lobe that directs the
muscle movements involved in speech
 Wernicke’s Area
 an area of the left temporal lobe involved in
language comprehension and expression
Heuristics

Representativeness Heuristic



judging the likelihood of things in terms of how
well they seem to represent, or match, particular
prototypes
may lead one to ignore other relevant information
Availability Heuristic



estimating the likelihood of events based on their
availability in memory
if instances come readily to mind (perhaps
because of their vividness), we presume such
events are common
Example: airplane crash
Creativity and Problem Solving
•
Convergent Thinking – thought is limited to
available facts, and one tries to narrow one’s
thinking to find the single best solution
•
Divergent Thinking – one associates more freely
to the various elements of a problem. One
follows “leads” that run in various directions;
perhaps one of them will lead to the solution
unexpectedly. Thinking “outside the box”
Paul Ekman
• Facial expressions of emotion are not culturally
determined, but universal across human cultures
and thus biological in origin
• He developed the Facial Action Coding System
(FACS) to taxonomize every human facial
expression
• Display rules-- Socialization establishes when it
is appropriate to display a given facial expression
in a given society and when it is not, thus causing
individuals to actively modulate the display of
emotions and other states. Ekman and Friesen
coined the term display rules to describe such
socially engendered forces that alter facial
expression.
Contemporary Research-The Trait Perspective
 Trait
 a characteristic pattern of behavior
 a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by
self-report inventories and peer reports
 Personality Inventory
 a questionnaire (often with true-false or
agree-disagree items) on which people
respond to items designed to gauge a wide
range of feelings and behaviors
 used to assess selected personality traits
The Trait Perspective
Moody
Anxious
Rigid
Sober
Pessimistic
Reserved
Unsociable
Quiet
UNSTABLE
 Hans and Sybil
Eysenck use two
primary personality
factors as axes for
EXTRAVERTED describing personality
sanguine
variation
Sociable
Touchy
Restless
Aggressive
Excitable
Changeable
Impulsive
Optimistic
Active
melancholic choleric
INTROVERTED
phlegmatic
Passive
Careful
Thoughtful
Peaceful
Controlled
Reliable
Even-tempered
Calm
Outgoing
Talkative
Responsive
Easygoing
Lively
Carefree
Leadership
STABLE
The Trait Perspective
 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory (MMPI)
 the most widely researched and clinically
used of all personality tests
 originally developed to identify emotional
disorders (still considered its most
appropriate use)
 now used for many other screening purposes
The Trait Perspective
 Empirically Derived Test
 a test developed by testing a pool of
items and then selecting those that
discriminate between groups
 such as the MMPI
The Trait Perspective
The “Big Five” Personality Factors
Trait Dimension
Description
Emotional Stability
Calm versus anxious
Secure versus insecure
Self-satisfied versus self-pitying
Extraversion
Sociable versus retiring
Fun-loving versus sober
Affectionate versus reserved
Openness
Imaginative versus practical
Preference for variety versus
preference for routine
Independent versus conforming
Agreeableness
Soft-hearted versus ruthless
Trusting versus suspicious
Helpful versus uncooperative
Organized versus disorganized
Careful versus careless
Disciplined versus impulsive
Conscientiousness
Social Psychology

Fundamental Attribution Error


tendency for observers, when analyzing
another’s behavior, to underestimate the
impact of the situation and to overestimate the
impact of personal disposition
Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon

tendency for people who have first
agreed to a small request to comply
later with a larger request
Social Thinking

Cognitive Dissonance Theory


we act to reduce the discomfort
(dissonance) we feel when two of our
thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent
example- when we become aware that
our attitudes and our actions clash, we
can reduce the resulting dissonance by
changing our attitudes
Social Influence
 Social Facilitation
 improved performance of tasks in the
presence of others
 occurs with simple or well-learned tasks but
not with tasks that are difficult or not yet
mastered
 Social Inhibition
 Decreased performance in front of a crowd
 Occurs with more complex tasks that were
unfamiliar
Social Influence
 Social Loafing
 tendency for people in a group to exert
less effort when pooling their efforts
toward attaining a common goal than
when individually accountable
 Deindividuation
 loss of self-awareness and selfrestraint in group situations that
foster arousal and anonymity
Social Influence
 Group Polarization
 enhancement of a group’s prevailing attitudes
through discussion within the group
 Can increase prejudice, internet new medium
 Good for self-help group situations
 Groupthink
 mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for
harmony in a decision-making group overrides
realistic appraisal of alternatives
 Fed by overconfidence, conformity, self-justification,
& group polarization.
Social Relations
 Prejudice
 an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude
toward a group and its members
 involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings,
and a predisposition to discriminatory action
 Stereotype
 a generalized (sometimes accurate, but often
overgeneralized) belief about a group of
people
Social Relations
 Ingroup
 “Us”- people with whom one shares a
common identity
 Outgroup
 “Them”- those perceived as different or
apart from one’s ingroup
Social Relations
 Ingroup Bias
 tendency to favor one’s own group
 Scapegoat Theory
 theory that prejudice provides an outlet for
anger by providing someone to blame
 Just-World Phenomenon
 tendency of people to believe the world is just
 people get what they deserve and deserve
what they get
Social Relations
Hindsight Bias– blaming the victim
because there is a feeling they should
have known better.
Date rape
Abused spouses
AIDS victims
Blaming the victim reassures people that it
couldn’t happen to them.
Social Relations
 Aggression
 any physical or verbal behavior
intended to hurt or destroy
 Genetic, neural, biochemical influences
 Frustration-Aggression Principle
 principle that frustration – the blocking
of an attempt to achieve some goal –
creates anger, which can generate
aggression
Social Relations
 Conflict
 perceived incompatibility of actions,
goals, or ideas
 Social Trap
 a situation in which the conflicting
parties, by each rationally pursuing their
self-interest, become caught in mutually
destructive behavior
 How to get people to cooperate?
 Regulation, communication, & awareness
Social Relations
Mirror image perceptions– how we see
“them” they see “us”
Self-serving bias– a readiness to perceive
oneself favorably. Accept credit for good
deeds and shuck blame for bad deeds.
Triangular Theory of Love: Robert Sternberg (1986)
Social Relations
 Social Exchange Theory
 the theory that our social behavior is
an exchange process, the aim of
which is to maximize benefits and
minimize costs
 Superordinate Goals
 shared goals that override differences
among people and require their
cooperation
Social Relations
 Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives
in Tension-reduction (GRIT)
 a strategy designed to decrease
international tensions
 one side announces recognition of mutual
interests and initiates a small conciliatory act
 opens door for reciprocation by other party
Anxiety Disorders
• Generalized Anxiety Disorder-- always
anticipating disaster, often worrying
excessively about health, money, family, or
work.
• Phobia-- an intense and irrational fear of a
particular object or situation
• panic disorder-- manifests itself in the form of
panic attacks
Anxiety Disorders
• Obsessive Compulsive Disorder-uncontrollable pattern of thoughts is
called obsession; repeatedly
performing irrational actions, which
is called a compulsion.
• Post-traumatic stress disorder-victims of traumatic events
experience the original event in the
form of dreams or flashbacks
• somatoform disorder
physical symptoms for which there is no
apparent physical cause
• conversion disorder
changing emotional difficulties into a
loss of a specific voluntary body function
• hypochondriasis, in which a person who
is in good health becomes preoccupied
with imaginary ailments.
• Dissociative disorder--a disorder in which a
person experiences alterations in memory,
identity, or consciousness
• Dissociative amnesia--the inability to recall
important personal events or information;
usually associated with stressful events
• Dissociative fugue--a dissociative disorder
in which a person suddenly and
unexpectedly travels away from home or
work and is unable to recall the past
• Dissociative identity disorder--a person
exhibits two or more personality states,
each with its own patterns of thinking and
behaving
Schizophrenia
• a group of disorders characterized by
confused and disconnected thoughts,
emotions, and perceptions
– Paranoid
– Catatonic
– disorganized
Mood Disorders
• Major depressive disorder--severe form of
depression that interferes with function,
concentration, and mental and physical well-being.
• Bipolar disorder--disorder in which an individual
alternates between feelings of mania (euphoria)
and depression
• Seasonal Affective Disorder-- There are people who
develop a deep depression in the midst of winter
Personality Disorders
• Psychologists consider people with personality disorders
“abnormal” because they seem unable to establish meaningful
relationships with other people, to assume social
responsibilities, or to adapt to their social environment.
Other Disorders
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Alcoholism
Drug Addiction
ADHD
Autism
Mental Retardation
Alzheimer's
Tourettes
• Dementia is a word for a group of symptoms caused by
disorders that affect the brain. It is not a specific disease.
People with dementia may not be able to think well enough
to do normal activities, such as getting dressed or eating. They
may lose their ability to solve problems or control their
emotions. Their personalities may change. They may become
agitated or see things that are not there. Memory loss is a
common symptom of dementia. However, memory loss by
itself does not mean you have dementia. People with
dementia have serious problems with two or more brain
functions, such as memory and language.
• Delirium is sudden severe confusion and rapid changes in
brain function that occur with physical or mental illness. (for
example, from lethargy to agitation and back to lethargy).
Normal Distribution Curve
Measures of Variance
 Provide an index of how spread out
scores of a distribution are.
 Range= subtract the lowest score from
the highest score.
 Standard Deviation is a measure of
distance. The larger the standard
deviation, the more spread out the
scores are.
http://www.childrensmercy.org/stats/definitions/stdev.htm
Correlation Coefficients
 Describes the direction and strength of the
relationship between two sets of
observations.
 Coefficients can have positive and negative
correlations.
 A scatterplot is a graph of participants’
scores on the two variables.
http://www2.cmp.uea.ac.uk/~jrk/distribution/
correlations/corr.html
Stress Appraisal
Richard Lazarus (1993) believes that how a
person perceives and evaluates an event makes
a difference.
This is called the cognitive model of stress.
The level of stress you feel depends on how you
appraise the situation.
 Primary appraisal refers to our immediate
evaluation of a situation.
There are three ways you can appraise a
situation–as irrelevant, positive, or negative.
A secondary appraisal involves deciding how to
deal with a potentially stressful situation.
Cerebral cortex
(perceives stressor)
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Pituitary hormone in the
bloodstream stimulates
the outer part of the adrenal
gland to release the stress
hormone cortisol
Pituitary gland
Sympathetic nervous
system releases the
stress hormones
epinephrine and
norepinephrine
from nerve endings
in the inner part of
the adrenal glands
Adrenal glands
Stress and Illness
The body’s resistance to stress can
last only so long before exhaustion sets in
Stress
resistance
Stressor
occurs
Phase 1
Alarm
reaction
(mobilize
resources)
Phase 2
Resistance
(cope with
stressor)
Phase 3
Exhaustion
(reserves
depleted)
 General
Adaptation
Syndrome
 Selye’s concept
of the body’s
adaptive
response to
stress in three
stages
Stress and Disease
 Lymphocytes
 two types of white blood cells that are
part of the body’s immune system
 B lymphocytes form in the bone marrow
and release antibodies that fight bacterial
infections
 T lymphocytes form in the thymus and,
among other duties, attack cancer cells,
viruses, and foreign substances
Stress and Disease
 Negative emotions and health-related
consequences
Heart
disease
Persistent stressors
and negative
emotions
Unhealthy behaviors
(smoking, drinking,
poor nutrition and sleep)
Release of stress
hormones
Immune
suppression
Autonomic nervous
system effects
(headaches,
hypertension)
Promoting Health
Depression 14
score 13
No-treatment
group
12
11
10
Relaxation
treatment
group
9
8
7
6
Aerobic
exercise
group
5
4
3
Before treatment
evaluation
After treatment
evaluation
 Aerobic Exercise
 sustained exercise
that increases
heart and lung
fitness
 Also best way to
increase
production of
serotonin
Promoting Health
 Biofeedback
 system for
electronically
recording,
amplifying, and
feeding back
information
regarding a subtle
physiological state
 blood pressure
 muscle tension
The
Physiological
Effects of
Nicotine
Obesity and weight control
When people lose weight their metabolism
slows and fat cells cry out, “Feed me!”
much like that of a semi starved body.
Being obese can also affect self esteem
stereotyped
Ridiculed
Job discrimination
Dating
Physiology of obesity
Fat cells increase to 2-3 times their
normal size and then divide. Once the
number increases, due to genetic
disposition, early childhood eating
patterns, or adult overeating– it never
decreases
Fat tissue has low metabolic rate– takes
less food to maintain
Physiology of hunger
p. 428-430
Body chemistry affects hunger:
Glucose- when low we feel hungry
insulin- hormone that diminishes glucose by
storing it as fat
Brain monitors blood chemistry
(hypothalamus)
Lateral hypothalamus– initiates hunger
Ventromedial hypothalamus– depresses
hunger
Physiology of hunger
p. 428-430
Hypothalamus monitors leptin levels.
Increases in leptin curbs eating and
increases activity.
Set point– body’s weight thermostat
To maintain set point body adjusts food
intake as well as basal metabolic rate.
Basal metabolic rate– body’s resting rate
of energy expenditure
Physical and Motor
Development
Language
Summary of Language Development
Month
(approximate)
Stage
4
Babbles many speech sounds.
10
Babbling reveals households
language.
12
One-word stage.
24
Two-world, telegraphic speech.
24+
Language develops rapidly into
complete sentences.
Language
 Linguistic Determinism
 Whorf”s hypothesis that
language determines the way
we think
What Are Phonemes?
PHONEME - shortest segment of speech,
which, if changed, would change the
meaning of a spoken word.
/bit/
/bait/
/beet/
Only 60 phonemes necessary to account for
all worlds’ languages!
English requires 48 phonemes.
Hawaiian requires only 11!
What Are Morphemes?
Morpheme - the shortest unit of spoken or written
language that carries meaning
Some morphemes are phonemes
(e.g., “I” and “a”)
Most are combos of 2 or more phonemes
Some morphemes are words
(e.g., “bat”)
What Is A Grammar?
Grammar - a system of rules (called semantics
and syntax) that enables us to communicate
and understand others
Semantics
Syntax
Rules we use to derive
meaning from morphemes,
words & sentences
(“-ed” = past tense)
Rules used to
order words into
sentences
Theories of Language Development
Nature vs Nurture
B.F.
Skinner
Language develops due to association,
imitation and reinforcement
(Operant Conditioning)
Noam
Chomsky
Rate of learning cannot be explained
solely by learning principles
Brains are “prewired” with a
“Universal Grammar”
suitable for all languages and dialects
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive
Development
Typical Age
Range
Description
of Stage
Developmental
Phenomena
Birth to nearly 2 years
Sensorimotor
Experiencing the world through
senses and actions (looking,
touching, mouthing)
•Object permanence
•Stranger anxiety
About 2 to 6 years
Preoperational
Representing things
with words and images
but lacking logical reasoning
•Pretend play
•Egocentrism
•Language development
About 7 to 11 years
Concrete operational
•Conservation
Thinking logically about concrete
•Mathematical
events; grasping concrete analogies
transformations
and performing arithmetical operations
About 12 through
adulthood
Formal operational
Abstract reasoning
•Abstract logic
•Potential for
moral reasoning
Renee Baillargeon
Found 4 month old infants will look longer
at a ball if it appears to roll through a
solid barrier, demonstrating that babies
seem to grasp basic physical laws
intuitively.
This challenged Piaget’s theory of object
permanence in Sensorimotor Stage
(cognitive development)
Kohlberg’s Moral Ladder
Postconventional
level
Morality of abstract
principles: to affirm
agreed-upon rights and
personal ethical principles
Conventional
level
Morality of law and
social rules: to gain
approval or avoid
disapproval
Preconventional
level
Morality of self-interest:
to avoid punishment
or gain concrete rewards
 As moral
development
progresses, the
focus of concern
moves from the
self to the wider
social world.
Carol Gilligan’s Critique of
Kohlberg
 Gilligan argues that Kohlberg’s rule-oriented conception of morality
has an orientation toward justice, which she implies is due to
stereotypical male thinking, whereas girls and women are more
likely to approach moral dilemmas with a “care” orientation
(Matthews, 1994).
 Gilligan argues that moral reasoning of males is primarily
based on rational abstract principles, whereas the moral
reasoning of females is based on relationships and the
social context.
 She bases her criticism on two things. First, that Kohlberg only
studied privileged white boys and men causing, in her opinion, a
biased opinion against women. Second, in his stage theory of moral
development, the male view of individual rights and rules was
considered a higher stage than women’s point of view of
development in terms of its caring effect on human relationships.
Erikson’s Stages of
Psychological
Development
• The stages (Oral, Anal, Phallic,
Latency and Genital) represent
patterns of gratifying our basic needs
and satisfying our drive for physical
pleasure
• Insufficient or excess gratification
during any stage could cause a
person to reflect the stage throughout
life.
Stages
Oral (0-18 mo.) – Pleasure center is mouth –
sucking, chewing, biting.
Anal (18 mo-36 mo)– focus on gaining control,
bowel and bladder elimination & retention as
form of control.
Phallic (3-6 yr) – Pleasure zone is in the
genitals, focus on coping with incestuous sexual
feelings (Oedipus complex, Electra complex)
Latency (6-puberty) – Repressed sexual
feelings (Identify with same sex parent– “if you
cant beat them, join them”)
Genital (puberty on) – Maturation of sexual
interests
Stage Issues
• During the Phallic Stage, The Oedipus
complex occurs due to boys feelings of
guilt for love of mother and fear of
castration.
• During Oral Stage, deprivation or
overindulgence may result in adult oral
fixations or have dependence issues
(being either passive and clingy or by
acting tough and using biting sarcasm–
may also have need to fulfill oral fixations
by excessively eating or smoking.)
• If Anal Stage is not resolved,
may result in an anal expulsive
(messy, unorganized) or anal
retentive (controlled
compulsively neat) personality