Transcript Memory - Home | Quincy College

Chapter 6
Memory
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Chapter Preview
• The nature of memory
• Memory encoding
• Memory storage
• Memory retrieval
• Forgetting
• Tips from the science of memory—for
studying and for life
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Chapter Preview
• The nature of memory video
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VQKt58ku
Enk
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Memory
• Retention of information or experience over
time
• Processes:
• Encoding
• Storage
• Retrieval
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Memory Encoding
• Process by which information enters memory
storage
• Automatically
• With effort
•
•
•
•
Attention
Levels of processing
Elaboration
Use of mental imagery
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Figure 6.2 – Depth of Processing
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Attention
• To begin memory encoding, must pay
attention to information
• Selective attention
• Focusing on specific aspects
• Limitation of brain’s resources
• Divided attention
• Attending to several things simultaneously
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Attention
• Sustained attention
• Attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged
period of time
• Multi-tasking
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Processing & Elaboration
• Levels of processing
• Continuum from shallow to deep
• Deeper processing, better memory
• Deep, elaborate processing is powerful
• Elaboration
• Number of different connections made
• Evident in physical activity of brain
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Use of Mental Imagery
•
•
•
•
Powerful encoding tool
Verbal code
Image code
Dual-code hypothesis
• Memory for pictures better than memory for
words
• Pictures stored as both image codes and verbal
codes
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1. Encoding and Transfer of
Information
1. Forms of Encoding
Short-Term Storage
Acoustic Encoding
•
•
•
•
Participants were presented with series of six
letters in a serial-recall task
Errors – participants substituted letters that
sounded like the correct letters (e.g. B for P)
Short-term memory relies primarily on an
acoustic rather than semantic or visual code
1. Encoding and Transfer of
Information
1. Forms of Encoding
Short-Term Storage
Semantic Encoding (by meanings of words)
•
•
•
Although encoding in short-term memory appears to be
primarily acoustic, there may be some secondary
semantic encoding as well
Visual Encoding
•
We sometimes temporarily encode information visually
as well, although visual encoding appears to be more
fleeting and vulnerable to decay than acoustic encoding
1. Encoding and Transfer of
Information
1. Forms of Encoding
Long-Term Storage
Semantic Encoding
•
•
•
Most information stored in long-term memory is
primarily semantically encoded
Evidence
•
•
In recognition tasks participants make more errors
when distracters are semantically related to target
words
We have tendency to remember words by clustering
them into categories (e.g. animals)
1. Encoding and Transfer of
Information
1. Forms of Encoding
Long-Term Storage
Visual Encoding
•
•
•
We tend to cluster items into categories
according to their visual similarities
Acoustic Encoding
•
Sometimes (even though rarely) we use acoustic
encoding too
1. Encoding and Transfer of
Information
2. Transfer of Information from Short-Term
Memory to Long-Term Memory
• Basic Concepts
• Consolidation
• Process of integrating new information into stored
information
• Metamemory Strategies
• Based on reflecting on our own memory processes with
a view to improving our memory
1. Encoding and Transfer of
Information
2. Transfer of Information from Short-Term Memory to
Long-Term Memory
• Rehearsal
• Repeated recitation of an item
• To move information into long-term memory, an individual
must engage in elaborative rehearsal, in which the person
meaningfully integrates the items into what the person
already knows
• Maintenance rehearsal – the person simply repetitiously
rehearses the items to be repeated, temporarily maintains
information in short-term memory without transferring it
to long-term memory
1. Encoding and Transfer of
Information
2. Transfer of Information from Short-Term Memory to
Long-Term Memory
• Spacing effect
• People tend to remember information longer when they
acquire it via distributed practice (i.e., various sessions
spaced over time) rather than via massed practice (session
crammed together all at once)
• A good night’s sleep, which includes plenty of REM stage
sleep, aids in memory consolidation
• Benefits of distributed practice seem to occur because we
have a relatively rapid learning system in the hippocampus
that becomes activated during REM sleep
1. Encoding and Transfer of
Information
2. Transfer of Information from Short-Term Memory to
Long-Term Memory
Mnemonic devices
• Specific techniques to help you memorize lists of
words by adding meaning to otherwise meaningless
lists of items
1. Categorical clustering
• One organizes a list of items into a set of categories (e.g.
fruits, vegetables,…)
2. Interactive images
• One imagines the objects represented by words one has to
remember interacting with each other in some active way
1. Encoding and Transfer of
Information
2. Transfer of Information from Short-Term Memory to
Long-Term Memory
Mnemonic devices (cont.)
3. Pegword system
• One associates each word with a word on a previously
memorized list and forms and interactive image between
the two words (e.g. “one is a bun,” “two is a shoe” –
imagining an apple between two bunds a sock stuffed inside
a shoe)
4. Method of loci
• One visualizes walking around an area with distinctive
landmarks and one then links the various landmarks to
specific items to be remembered (e.g. a strange-looking
house with a sock on top of the house in place of the
chimney)
1. Encoding and Transfer of
Information
2. Transfer of Information from Short-Term Memory
to Long-Term Memory
Mnemonic devices (cont.)
5. Acronyms
• One devises a word or expression in which each of its letters
stands for a certain other word or concept (e.g. UK)
6. Acrostics
• One forms a sentence rather than a single word to help one
remember new words (e.g. “every good does fine” to recall
names of notes in music)
1. Encoding and Transfer of
Information
2. Transfer of Information from Short-Term
Memory to Long-Term Memory
Mnemonic devices (cont.)
7. Keyword system
• One forms an interactive image that links the sound and
meaning of a foreign word with the sound and meaning of a
familiar word (e.g. libro (Spanish) with liberty and think of
the Statue of Liberty holding up a large book)
Memory Storage
• How information is:
• Retained over time
• Represented in memory
• Atkinson-Shiffrin theory
• Sensory memory
• Short-term memory
• Long-term memory
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Figure 6.5 - Atkinson and
Shiffrin’s Theory of Memory
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Sensory Memory
• Holds information in sensory form for an
instant
• Echoic memory
• Auditory sensory memory
• Retained for up to several seconds
• Iconic memory
• Visual sensory memory
• Retained for only about ¼ second
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Short-Term Memory
• Limited-capacity (7±2 items)
• Information retained for up to 30 seconds,
without strategies to retain it longer
• Chunking
• Grouping information into higher-order units
• Rehearsal
• Conscious repetition of information
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Working Memory
• Alternative approach to explaining short-term
memory
• Three-part system to hold information
temporarily
• Phonological loop
• Briefly stores speech-based information
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Working Memory
• Visuo-spatial working memory
• Stores visual and spatial information
• Central executive
• Integrates information
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Figure 6.8 - Baddeley’s View of
Working Memory
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Long-Term Memory
• Relatively permanent memory
• Stores huge amounts of information for long
time
• Explicit memory
• Implicit memory
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Explicit (Declarative) Memory
• Conscious recollection of information that can
be verbally communicated
• Permastore content
• Episodic memory
• Autobiographical information
• Semantic memory
• Knowledge about the world
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Figure 6.11 - Some Differences
Between Episodic and Semantic Memory
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Implicit (Nondeclarative) Memory
• Nonconscious recollection of skills and
sensory perceptions
• Procedural memory
• Memory for skills
• Classical conditioning
• Memory for associations between stimuli
• Priming
• Activation of information already in storage
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Memory: Organization
• Schema
• Preexisting mental concept to organize and
interpret information
• Script
• Schema for an event
• Connectionism (parallel distributed
processing)
• Memory is stored throughout the brain in
connections among neurons
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Memory: Location
• Neurons
• Memory located in specific circuits of neurons
• Neurotransmitters play a role in forging
connections
• Long-term potentiation
• Simultaneous activation of neurons strengthens
memory
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Memory: Location
• Brain structures
• Explicit memory
• Hippocampus, temporal lobes, limbic system
(amygdala)
• Implicit memory
• Cerebellum, temporal lobes, hippocampus
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Figure 6.12 – Structures of the Brain Involved
in Different Aspects of Long-Term Memory
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Memory: Retrieval
• Part II
• Speed Dating activity
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Memory: Retrieval
• When information retained in memory comes
out of storage
• Serial position effect
• Tendency to recall items at beginning and end of
lists
• Primacy effect
• Better recall for items at beginning of list
• Recency effect
• Better recall for items at end of list
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Memory: Retrieval
• Factors
• Retrieval cues
• Retrieval task
• Recall
• Memory task to retrieve previously learned
information
• Recognition
• Memory task to identify, or recognize, learned
items
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Memory: Retrieval
• Encoding specificity principle
• Information present at time of learning tends to
be effective as retrieval cue
• Context-dependent memory
• Remembering better when attempting to recall
information in same context in which it was
learned
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Memory: Retrieval
• Autobiographical memories
• Special form of episodic memory containing
recollections of own life experiences
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Figure 6.15 - The Three-Level Hierarchical
Structure of Autobiographical Memory
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Memory: Retrieval
• Flashbulb memory
• Emotionally significant events
• Recalled with vivid imagery
• Memory for traumatic events
• May contain inaccuracies
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Memory: Retrieval
• Repressed memories
• Defense mechanism by which person, traumatized
by an event, forgets it – and then forgets act of
forgetting
• May be special case of motivated forgetting
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Eyewitness Testimony
• May contain errors
• Memory for emotional events
• Focus on:
• Distortion
• Bias
• Inaccuracy
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Figure 6.16 - Ebbinghaus’s
Forgetting Curve
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Forgetting
• Encoding failure
• Not ‘forgotten’ but, never encoded
• Information never entered into long-term memory
• Retrieval failure
• Forgotten information
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Forgetting: Interference
• Forgetting because other information gets in
way of remembering
• Proactive interference
• Material learned earlier disrupts retrieval of
material learned later
• Retroactive interference
• Material learned later disrupts retrieval of
material learned earlier
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Figure 6.18 - Proactive and
Retroactive Interference
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Forgetting
• Decay
• Neurochemical memory ‘trace’ disintegrates over
time
• Cannot, alone, explain forgetting
• Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon (TOT state)
• Confident of knowing something but unable to
retrieve it from memory
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Prospective Memory
• Remembering information about future
events
• Includes timing and content
• Time-based prospective memory
• Intention to engage in behavior after passage of
time
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Prospective Memory
• Event-based prospective memory
• Intention to engage in behavior when some
external event elicits it
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Amnesia
• Loss of memory
• Anterograde amnesia
• Disorder that affects retention of new information
• Retrograde amnesia
• Memory loss for a segment of past, but not for
new events
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Applying Memory Tips
• To your studies:
•
•
•
•
Organize
Encode
Rehearse
Retrieve
• To your life:
• Autobiographical memory and the life story
• Generative (vs. contamination) life stories
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• http://www.liveleak.com/view?i=fd0_126147
5829
• How Does your Memory Work 1 of 5 - BBC
Horizon Documentary
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instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may
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