Transcript File - SSHS AP Psychology

Chapter 8
Memory
FALSE CONFESSIONS
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Memory
Memory is the basis for knowing your friends,
your neighbors, the English language, the
national anthem, and yourself.
If memory was nonexistent, everyone would be
a stranger to you; every language foreign; every
task new; and even you yourself would be a
stranger.
The Phenomenon of Memory
Memory is any indication that learning has
persisted over time. It is our ability to store and
retrieve information.
Studying Memory:
Information Processing Models
Keyboard
(Encoding)
Disk
(Storage)
Sequential Process
Monitor
(Retrieval)
Encoding, storage or retrieval??
 Continuing to pronounce nuclear as nucular…
 A failure of which?
Information Processing
Frank Wartenberg/ Picture Press/
Corbis
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works
The Atkinson-Schiffrin (1968) three-stage model
of memory includes a) sensory memory, b)
short-term memory, and c) long-term memory.
7
Sensory Registers
 All of our senses have registers, but the visual and
auditory have been studied most extensively.
 Virtually unlimited capacity, but information disappears
from them quickly.
 Auditory information fades more slowly than visual.
Sensory Memory
Percent Recognized
The longer the delay, the greater the memory loss.
80
60
40
20
0.15
0.30
0.50
Time (Seconds)
1.00
Sensory Memories
The duration of sensory memory varies for the
different senses.
Iconic
0.5 sec. long
Echoic
3-4 sec. long
Hepatic
< 1 sec. long
Modifications to the Three-Stage
Model
1.
Some information skips the first two stages
and enters long-term memory automatically.
2.
Since we cannot focus on all the sensory
information received, we select information
that is important to us and actively process it
into our working memory.
Cocktail Party Effect
Broadbent Theory=Filtering out surrounding
conversations.You could describe basic characteristic or
people, but not topic of conversation.
Working Memory
A newer understanding of short-term memory
that involves conscious, active processing of
incoming auditory and visual-spatial
information, and of information retrieved from
long-term memory
Encoding
 We encode info in two ways:
 Automatic Processing
 Effortful Processing
Encoding: Getting Information In
How We Encode
1. Some information (route to your school) is
automatically processed.
2. However, new or unusual information
(friend’s new cell-phone number) requires
attention and effort.
Encoding
 Automatic Processing
 Unconscious encoding
 Location, time and frequency
 Retracing steps to find your keys…
 Also becomes automatic with practice
 Driving to a friends house…
Encoding
 Effortful Processing
 Attention / conscious effort
 Studying for a test
 Through rehearsal, Effortful can become automatic
Automatic Processing
We process an enormous amount of information
effortlessly, such as the following:
1. Space: While reading a textbook, you
automatically encode the place of a picture
on a page.
2. Time: We unintentionally note the events
that take place in a day.
3. Frequency: You effortlessly keep track of
things that happen to you.
Effortful Processing
© Bananastock/ Alamy
Spencer Grant/ Photo Edit
Committing novel
information to memory
requires effort just like
learning a concept from
a textbook. Such
processing leads to
durable and accessible
memories.
Rehearsal
Effortful learning
usually requires
rehearsal or conscious
repetition.
http://www.isbn3-540-21358-9.de
Ebbinghaus studied
rehearsal by using
nonsense syllables:
TUV YOF GEK XOZ
Hermann Ebbinghaus
(1850-1909)
Rehearsal
The more times the
nonsense syllables were
practiced on Day 1,
the fewer repetitions were
required to remember
them on Day 2.
Memory Effects
1.
Spacing Effect: We retain information better
when we rehearse over time.
2.
Serial Position Effect: When your recall is better
for first and last items on a list, but poor for
middle items.
 Primacy Effect: Remember first words, items
 Recency Effect: Remember last items, words
Memory Effects
 Next-In-Line Effect
 Don’t remember what someone has said if we are
next…
 Self-Reference Effect
 We encode better when issue relates to us
What We Encode
1.
2.
3.
Encoding by meaning
Encoding by images
Encoding by organization
Encoding Meaning
Processing the meaning of verbal
information by associating it with what
we already know or imagine. Encoding
meaning (semantic encoding) results in
better recognition later than visual or
acoustic encoding.
Which is most effective?
Visual Encoding
Mental pictures (imagery) are a powerful aid to
effortful processing, especially when combined
with semantic encoding.
Both photos: Ho/AP Photo
Showing adverse effects of tanning and smoking
in a picture may be more powerful than simply talking about it.
Mnemonics
Imagery is at the heart of many memory aids.
Mnemonic techniques use vivid imagery and
organizational devices in aiding memory.
Mnemonic Devices
 Key Word System
Term
Broca’s Area
Key Word Mental Picture
Tom Brokaw News cast (talking)
Parietal Lobe Paraná
Amygdala
Hippocampus ????
biting your toe
Amy
Old Psycho
girlfriend = Fear
?????
Organizing Information for Encoding
Break down complex information into broad
concepts and further subdivide them into
categories and subcategories.
1. Chunking
2. Hierarchies
Chunking
The capacity of the working memory may be
increased by “chunking.”
F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M
FBI TWA CIA IBM
4 chunks
Chunking
Acronyms are another way of chunking
information to remember it.
HOMES = Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior
ROY G. BIV = Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet
Hierarchy
Complex information broken down into broad
concepts and further subdivided into categories
and subcategories.
Encoding Summarized in a Hierarchy
Storage: Retaining Information
Storage is at the heart of memory. Three
stores of memory are shown below:
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Encoding
Events
Encoding
Retrieval
Retrieval
Working Memory
Working memory, the new name for short-term
memory, has a limited capacity (7±2) and a short
duration (20 seconds).
Sir George Hamilton observed that he could accurately remember up
to 7 beans thrown on the floor. If there were more beans, he guessed.
Capacity
The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus
Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for
Processing Information (1956).
Ready?
MUTGIKTLRSYP
You should be able to
recall 7±2 letters.
George Miller
Chunking
The capacity of the working memory may be
increased by “chunking.”
F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M
FBI TWA CIA IBM
4 chunks
Duration
Peterson and Peterson (1959) measured the
duration of working memory by manipulating
rehearsal.
CHJ
MKT
HIJ
547
547
544
541
…
The duration of the working memory is about 20 sec.
CH??
Working Memory Duration
Long-Term Memory
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Encoding
Events
Encoding
Retrieval
Retrieval
Long-Term Memory
Essentially unlimited capacity store.
R.J. Erwin/ Photo Researchers
The Clark’s nutcracker can locate 6,000 caches of
buried pine seeds during winter and spring.
LTM
 Long Term-Potentiation (LTP)
 Leading Theory for LTM
 Neural networks strengthen memory
 Neural connections gradually strengthen through
rehearsal over time (memory strengthened)
• Nerve cell’s genes produce synapse strengthening proteins
/enabling LTM formation
• Epinephrine and/or cortisol affect long term
• retention
LTM DEMO
 On a scratch sheet of paper, write down the
names of the presidents (as many as you can)
 You will have 5 minutes.
Memory Feats
Memory Stores
Feature
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
LTM
Encoding
Copy
Phonemic
Semantic
Capacity
Unlimited
7±2 Chunks
Very Large
Duration
0.25 sec.
20 sec.
Years
Types of Long Term Memory
 Episodic Memory= events experienced in a specific time and
place
 Semantic Memory= facts and concepts
 Procedural Memory= motor skills and habits
 Emotional Memory= learned emotional responses
Schema = a set of beliefs or expectations about something that
is based on past experience; framework
 can influence the amount of attention you pay to a given
event
Types of LTM