Transcript Episodic Semantic

Assessment of Memory Processes
Milton J. Dehn, Ed.D.
MASP Conference: Day I
October 22, 2015
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Workshop Information Sources
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8.
Essentials of Working Memory Assessment
Long-Term Memory Problems in Children
Essentials of Processing Assessment, 2nd Ed.
Working Memory in the Classroom
www.psychprocesses.com
www.SchoolhouseEducationalServices.com
www.workingmemoryonline.com
Presenter Contact: [email protected]
Workshop Content
1. Memory processes
2. Related cognitive processes
3. Neuropsychology of memory and
processing
4. Risk factors
5. WM Assessment
6. LTM Assessment
7. Processing Assessment and Analysis
8. Using MPA and PPA software to determine
strengths and weaknesses
Need for Memory Assessment
and Interventions
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5.
Under-identified in children & adolescents
10% have a WM impairment-Alloway
6% of average children have LTM deficits (UK)
Half of LD have a memory deficit (Dehn)
LTM impairments are a growing problem, e.g,
juvenile diabetes and concussions
6. Intervention expertise is lacking; identified
children not served
7. Memory deficits are “The elephant in the
classroom”
Why the Under-Identification?
1. Not considered during assessment or
assessment knowledge lacking
2. Misattributions
1. Teachers report WM as inattentiveness
2. Test anxiety, motivation, study skills for LTM
3. Viewed as a “learning” problem
4. Lack of knowledge about memory functions
5. Lack of knowledge about interventions
Working Memory Definition
1. ST retention + processing = WM
2. “WM: the limited capacity to retain
information while simultaneously
manipulating the same or other information
for a short period of time”
3. Keeping information in mind from moment
to moment
4. STM is part of WM; WM “manages” STM as
needed
Signs of WM Overload in Daily Life
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“What was I going to say?”
“What did I walk in here to get?”
Not noticing you made a mistake
Reaching for the calculator
Having to switch back and forth from one
computer screen to another to remember
• Having difficulty focusing or dividing attention
• Unrelated thoughts getting in the way
Why WM is So Important
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WM is a core cognitive process
Also, an important executive process
It’s the interface between STM and LTM
WM predicts academic learning
Deficit predicts need for special ed.
WM deficits seen in several disabilities
Important in daily functioning
WM Capacity
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STM adult span of 7; Digit span of 80?
WM limit of 4 “chunks”
Can be as little as one chunk in children
Processing & storage use same WM resource
Processing referred to as “cognitive load”
Concurrent processing lowers span
Strategies can increase span
Duration affected by rehearsal & amount of
interference Human limitations
Dehn’s Integrated Model of WM
Integrated Model of Working Memory
Executive WM
Visualspatial
WM
Verbal
WM
Phonological
STM
Active
Verbal
LTM
Visualspatial
STM
Active
Visual
LTM
WM Processes to Assess & Why
1. Assess: Phonological STM, Visual-Spatial
STM, Verbal WM, Visual-Spatial WM, and
Executive WM
2. They each have different functions
3. Each has a different neurological basis
4. To identify strengths and weaknesses for
intervention purposes
Phonological STM (Auditory)
1.
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Holds & manipulates speech-based info.
The coding is phonological
A loop of about 2 seconds
Span equals amount articulated in 2 sec.
1. Span increases with speech rate increases
5. Includes a subvocal rehearsal process
6. Similarity/rhyming reduces span (interference)
7. Related to phonological processing & language
development & basic reading skills
Visuospatial STM
1. Visual (object) and spatial (location); these
are separate neurologically, e.g. dorsal
(spatial) and ventral (visual) stream and thus
should be considered separately
2. Is automatically updating
3. Concrete, nameable images are consciously
recoded verbally after age 8; tendency to
“abandon” visual-spatial
Verbal Working Memory
1. Processing plus storage; complex span
2. Effortful processing, manipulating,
transforming, while maintaining verbal
information
3. Meaningful processing, semantic information
4. Examples: Taking notes, reading
comprehension, mental arithmetic
Visuospatial Working Memory
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5.
Both mental imagery and visual stimuli
Maintaining visual images during processing
Manipulating, restructuring images
Necessary for dealing with rotation
Example: On-going awareness of location of
automobiles in motion on a crowded
freeway
6. Related with math
Executive WM
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The essence of working memory
Combines storage and processing
Integrates visual and verbal
Controls and coordinates other components
Allocates/focuses attention
Inhibiting, shifting, updating
Involves strategy use
Often where the deficiency lies
Close relationship with executive functions
The Big Three Executive WM Processes
1. Inhibiting: Suppressing distractors and
interference
2. Shifting: Alternating between different
processing tasks or between processing and
storage (rehearsal)
3. Updating: Continual replacement of no
longer relevant information with current
information
Distinction Between Executive WM
and Verbal and Visual-Spatial WM
1. This is Dehn’s model/definition
2. Executive is doing additional processing not
necessary for verbal and visual-spatial WM
3. Both have processing and deal with
interference
4. When the interference is not specific to the
task, it is primarily executive WM
5. For example, processing language is verbal
WM, but not executive
Activated LTM Processes
1.
2.
3.
4.
Recently activated LTM representations
WM works with these, going back and forth
Up to 20 at a time
Effectively expands capacity of WM because
these are not stored in STM/WM
5. Are part of verbal and visual-spatial WM
6. WM may draw from these more than STM
7. Problem: No way to easily assess these
Working Memory and Related
Cognitive Processes
Should be considered when WM is deficient:
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Attention
Executive functions
Fluid Reasoning
Language
Long-term memory
Processing speed
Phonological processing
WM and Related Cognitive Processes*
General Intellectual Ability
Fluid Reasoning
Processing Speed
Auditory Processing
Long-Term Retrieval
Visual-Spatial Processing
*From WJ IV COG manual
.72
.54
.42
.56
.40
.37
What WM and Attention
Have in Common
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Both are in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
Both part of general executive functions
Both involve controlled attention
Inhibition deficit underlies both ADHD and WM
Both respond to Ritalin
Problems manifest in similar ways
When a student has a WM deficit, the number
one thing reported by teachers is that the
student has an attention problem
WM and Attention
1. The control of attention is part of WM
2. Paying attention is a necessary but
insufficient condition for processing and
retention in STM and WM
3. If child is paying attention and still can’t
remember in the moment, it’s probably WM
4. Attention problems diminish WM
performance in a normal WM
WM vs ADHD
1. The majority with ADHD have a WM problem
2. ADHD behavior issues have little to do with WM,
except for poor decision-making
3. Attention involves arousal & motor inhibition
4. WM deficit closely related to Inattentive ADHD,
not Hyperactive/Impulsive type
5. ADHD involves mainly visuospatial WM
6. Divided attention closest to WM
7. As WM load increases, hyperactivity increases
WM vs Executive Processing
1. WM is one of the executive functions
2. General executive processing controls and
coordinates all cognitive functions
3. WM has it’s own executive control
4. STM functions well without executive
5. Inhibition is an overlapping function
1. General executive---resisting distraction
2. Working memory---inhibiting old information
6. Strategy selection is also overlapping
WM & Fluid Reasoning
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Correlations as high as .90
Both require focused, controlled attention
Reasoning is more the logic; relations
WM maintains the content used in the
reasoning process
5. Novel situations: with little long-term
knowledge or automaticity require more
fluid reasoning & working memory
WM & Oral Language
1. L1 and L2 development depend on
Phonological STM and Verbal WM
2. Communication (thoughts into words with
appropriate structure) depend on WM
3. Language development facilitates WM
processing of information (they’re reciprocal)
4. Example: Following directions
WM & Phonological Processing
1. Correlation of .85 with phonological STM
2. As reading develops, more differentiation
3. Phonological awareness and processing
places demands on STM and WM
4. Phonological processing deficit is primary
cause of reading disabilities
WM & Processing Speed
1. Processing speed accounts for most of the
variance in STM span (up to 90%)
2. Slow: Information lost before processing and
task completed
3. Slow: Poorer encoding into LTM
4. Faster rehearsal maintains more info.
5. Less of a relationship in adults
6. Case study example
Discussion
How does the new information on working
memory change your concept of it?
LTM Importance & Misconceptions
1. Everyone agrees on its importance for
learning, identity, & daily functioning
2. People assume it’s okay when it’s not
3. Assume only head injuries harm it
1. Even then, memory functions often ignored
4. Assume nothing much can be done about it
5. When recognized, the specific memory
process deficit is not identified
STM/WM vs LTM
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STM
Very limited capacity
Retention for seconds
Conscious access to all content
Depends on attention
Immediate retrieval only
Forgetting is immediate
Amenable to simple strategies
Easy to assess
Less susceptible to brain injury
Frontal & parietal lobes
Electrical activity
LTM
Extensive capacity
Retention for minutes to years
Limited conscious access
Less dependent on attention
Retrieval can be extended
Forgetting is gradual
Amenable to elaborate strategies
Difficult to assess
Very susceptible to injury
Medial temporal lobe
Neuronal and synaptic changes
Long-term memory encoding changes the brain, WM and STM processing
does not.
Long-Term
Memory
Mem
Explicit
Memory
Episodic
Implicit
Memory
Semantic
Priming
Procedural
Learning
Classical
Conditioning
LTM Memory Systems
1. Explicit/declarative
1. Episodic---episodes, events, autobiographical
1. Organized by scripts
2. Semantic---factual, knowledge, academic
1. Organized by schemas
2. Implicit/nondeclarative
1. Priming---unconscious associations (example)
2. Procedural learning--- “how to” learning
3. Classical conditioning---e.g., phobias
3. Prospective Memory (not really a separate memory
system)
Explicit vs Implicit
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Explicit
Conscious
Knowledge
Flexible expression
Hippocampus-dependent
Recollection expresses
Cognitive only
Effortful retrieval also
Develops until adulthood
Vulnerable to injury
Implicit
Unconscious
Skills
Rigid expression
Non-hippocampus
Performance expresses
Non-cognitive also
Automatic retrieval only
Developed by age 3
Resistant to injury
Episodic vs Semantic
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Episodic
Memory for events
Remembering
Context dependent
Subjective focus
Vulnerable to pathology
Develops later
Known source
Mostly visuospatial
Unintentional encoding
Chronological
Organized spatiotemporally
Subject to rapid forgetting
Few demands on WM
Semantic
Memory for facts
Knowing
Context free
Objective focus
Resistant to pathology
Develops first
Unknown source
Mostly verbal
More intentional
Categorical
Organized by meaning
Less rapid forgetting
Requires WM
Episodic-Semantic Interactions
1. Semantic slowly accrues from episodic
2. School learning is initially episodic but
eventually semantic
3. Episodic helps build the semantic
4. Semantic provides the schemas and scripts for
the episodic
5. Episodic provides context cues for semantic
6. Memory tests are primarily episodic
LTM Processes
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Encoding
Consolidation
Storage
Retrieval
Encoding
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Requires attention
Associated with “learning”
All other LT memory depends on
Enhanced by strategies
Hippocampus dependent
STM and WM deficits reduce encoding
opportunities
Consolidation
1. Memories become more stable and resistant
to interference over time
2. Memories are forgotten because they are not
consolidated
3. LT memories are initially and temporarily
stored in the hippocampus and adjoining
medial temporal lobe structures
4. Over time they are transferred to the cortex
for more “permanent” storage
Consolidation Details
1. Neuroscience construct; not cognitive psych.
2. Evidence from TBI, amnesia, & sleep studies
1. Ribot’s gradient
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Takes time: hours to several days
Unconscious mostly
Much of it occurs during sleep
Especially important for semantic memory
Reactivations improve consolidation
Sleep and Consolidation
1. During both types of sleep
2. Hippocampus “replays” experiences/learning
1. “Organizes” information; Strengthens connections
2. “Moves” information to cortical areas
3. Sleep also reduces interference
4. Sleep accounts for 69% of next day
improvement in procedural tasks
5. Immediate sleep: 81% recall; delayed: 66%
Storage of Memories
1. The connections (synapses) more important
than the cellular changes
2. In networks of interconnected neurons, with
associated items linked more closely
1. Logical linking at the neurological level may
result from thinking about two things at the
same time (associations) (“fire together; wire
together” principle)
3. Memories end up being stored in same areas
that sensed, perceived, and processed info.
Retrieval
1.
2.
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5.
6.
Mostly automatic; strengthens memories
WM involved in effortful retrieval
We know more than we can retrieve
Hippocampus reintegrates information
Reasoning involved in reconstruction
During assessment, compare with
recognition to determine whether it is a
retrieval or a storage problem
Recognition
1. Should be better than uncued retrieval
2. If not, there is an encoding or a storage
problem
3. When significantly better, there is a retrieval
problem
1. Slow retrieval
2. Ineffective retrieval
Causes of Retrieval Problems
1.
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5.
Blocking or interference
Slow processing speed
Poor or no associations at time of encoding
Wrong cues or lack of cues
Has not been consolidated; is not in storage
Forgetting (Permanent)
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5.
Lost from storage; not a retrieval problem
Lack of consolidation
Fast at first, then reaches asymptote
20 to 80% forgotten within 24 hours
Some retain well within 30 minutes or first
day but then have very poor retention
afterwards (poor consolidation)
6. Is it gone or not retrievable at moment?
Interference
1. Proactive---previous learning interferes with
current learning
2. Retroactive---current learning interferences
with previous learning
3. Related information is the most interfering
4. Controlled somewhat through inhibition
5. Spread out instruction; different material
1. Block scheduling?
Interference
1. The primary cause of forgetting
2. Memory improves when interference
reduced
3. Amnesic individuals benefit from delaying
interference (dark room example)
4. “Every time I learn something new, it pushes
some old stuff out of my brain” Homer
Simpson
Discussion
How does the new information on long-term
memory change your concept of it?
Neuroanatomy of Memory
Processes
Prefrontal Cortex Image
WM Neuroanatomy Evidence
1. Evidence for each of the five WM
components/processes, even phonological
storage vs rehearsal
2. Executive WM: dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
(dPFC)---shared with attentional control
3. STM processes mainly in parietal and
occipital lobes
4. WM processes mainly frontal, temporal,
parietal
Brain Lobes and STM & WM
1. Frontal (Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex):
Executive WM
2. Temporal: Episodic WM (especially during
LTM encoding and retrieval)
3. Parietal Lobes: Phonological STM and Verbal
WM in language processing areas
4. Occipital Lobes: Visuospatial STM and WM
Neuropsychology of WM
“working memory can be viewed as neither a
unitary nor a dedicated system. Thus, working
memory is not localized to a single brain region
but probably is an emergent property of the
functional interactions between the PFC and the
rest of the brain” (D’Esposito, 2007)
WM Neurological Basis
1. Individual differences in WM capacity are
correlated with the structural integrity of
white matter pathways connecting domain
general regions with the fronto-parietal
network
2. Thus, WM is related to integrity (strength)
and extent of myelinated axons
3. WM training increases the integrity of white
matter (Takeuchi et al., 2010)
Other Brain Involvement in
General WM
1. Striatum: part of the forebrain and the basal
ganglia system. Mainly involved with
planning movement.
2. Anterior cingulate: a “collar” around the
corpus callosum involved in decision making
3. Dopamine level is important for WM. A
deficiency in dopamine can impair WM
performance.
LTM and the Brain Lobes
1. Temporal lobes---encoding, retrieval,
consolidation, temporary storage of longterm episodic memories, semantic storage
2. Frontal lobes---memory strategies for
encoding and retrieval (no actual storage of
long-term memories)
3. Parietal---auditory and spatial storage
4. Occipital---visuospatial storage
Prefrontal Cortex and LTM
1. Interacts with medial temporal lobe and
hippocampus
2. Involved during conscious encoding and
retrieval
1. Application of strategies
3. Prospective memory & source memory
4. Development of metamemory
The Hippocampus
Hippocampus Image
The Hippocampus
1. Seahorse shape in temporal lobe
2. Necessary for STM-LTM transfer
3. Encodes, consolidates, retrieves,
reintegrates
4. May hold some episodic permanently
5. Explicit memory only
6. Sensitive to injury, glucose, oxygen, &
cortisol levels
The Hippocampus
1. Responsible for transferring memories to
cortex (consolidation); active during sleep
2. Has a spatial side and a verbal side
3. Spatial memory depends on it (more than
verbal memory); London’s taxi drivers
4. Large EEG signals
5. High levels of glucocorticoid receptors
6. Size matters; bigger is better
The Hippocampus
1. Clearly necessary for episodic memory
2. May not be as essential for semantic memory
3. More involved with automatic retrieval;
conscious retrieval may depend more on the
prefrontal cortex
4. The hippocampus primarily stores
associations between memories rather than
the memories themselves; holds the key to
the connections
The Hippocampus
1. Hippocampus contains stem cells
2. Hippocampus can grow (London taxi drivers)
3. New neurons can be created from stem cells;
up to six weeks to mature
4. Rats given Prozac had a 70 percent increase
in hippocampi cells after three weeks
5. Humans who recover from depression have
more hippocampal volume than those who
are chronically depressed
What the Hippocampus Needs
1. Oxygen
2. Glucose
3. Sleep (no permanent damage from lack of)
4. No cortisol
5. No impact
6. No electricity
See YouTube Video: “Hippocampus Damage”
Non-Hippocampal LTM Structures
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Thalamus (sensory relay station)
Amygdala (emotions strengthen memories)
Ventral visual stream (RAN)
Parahippocampal cortex (surrounds
hippocampus; memory encoding)
5. Entorhinal cortex (interface between
hippocampus and neocortex)
6. Perirhinal cortex (visual recognition)
HM: Classic Case of No Hippocampus
1. Hippocampus, parahippocampal gyrus,
entorhinal cortex, and amygdala were surgically
removed in 1957 at age 27 because of epilepsy
2. Anterograde amnesia but STM and WM fine;
could modify some semantic knowledge, such as
celebrities’ names, but no new episodic memory
3. Some retrograde amnesia: Most events 1-2
years prior to surgery forgotten but prior
semantic memory was good
HM
1. Performed normally on intellectual tests
2. Could learn new motor skills (implicit,
procedural memory) but could not
remember that he had learned them
3. He could draw a map of the house he was
living in (that he moved to after the surgery),
maybe from locomotion recall
4. His case had strong influence on memory
theories and brain mapping of memory
Implicit Memory
1. Does not appear to depend on the
hippocampus
2. Not consciously accessible
3. Demonstrated through performance, not
recall
4. Precedes development of explicit memory
5. Example of implicit memory without explicit
Implicit Memory Structures
1. Generally not in medial temporal lobe but
parietal and occipital
2. Cerebellum---conditioning
3. Striatum---procedural learning
4. Also, temporal cortices, amygdala, basal
ganglia, and motor cortex
5. Range of structures may serve a protective
function
Organization of LTM Memories from
Cognitive Perspective
1. Schemas
1. Logical linking at the neurological level may
result from thinking about two things at the
same time (associations) (“fire together; wire
together”)
2. Scripts
3. Memory traces
4. Associations
Organization and Storage of Memories
1. The connections more important and better
understood than the cellular changes
2. Memory traces (pathways): synapses
1. New memories: new synapses or changes in strength
3. In networks of interconnected neurons, with
associated items linked more closely
4. Memories end up being stored in same areas
that sensed, perceived, and processed info
5. Different components of a memory stored
separately; then reintegrated during retrieval
Neuroanatomy of Other Processes
1.
2.
3.
4.
Most in more than one brain lobe
Illustrates the interconnectivity of processes
Most have specific structures within a lobe
Processing speed is a function of
interconnectivity; does not have a specific
structure
Occipital Lobe
1. Dedicated to vision and visual-spatial
processing
2. Receives sensory data from the thalamus
3. Visual and spatial processing are separate
4. Dorsal stream (upper) sends spatial
information to parietal lobe
5. Ventral stream (lower) sends visual
information to temporal lobe
Temporal Lobe
1. Auditory processing
2. Long-term memory processing in the
hippocampus
3. Some visual processing
4. Semantic memory storage
Parietal Lobe
1. Integrates sensory information
2. Language processing
3. Phonological processing
Frontal Lobe
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
The “output” lobe; others are input
Executive functions---prefrontal cortex
Working memory---prefrontal cortex
Attentional control---prefrontal cortex
Fluid reasoning
Fine motor
Oral expression
No storage of long-term memories
Discussion
How does the new information on
neuroanatomy change your concept of memory,
processing, and learning problems?
Risk Factors for Memory
Impairments
1. Anything that harms the brain or cognitive
functioning impacts LTM
2. All involve risk of damage to hippocampus
3. The hippocampus is a vulnerable structure
4. Damage to prefrontal cortex also impacts LTM
5. Prenatal, perinatal, neonatal, any point in life
6. Some temporary with recovery, some stable,
some progressively worse
7. See Table
Risk Factors: TBI
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
.25% of youth acquire a TBI each year
Severe TBI: 36 – 53% have ongoing LTM impairment
Implicit more resistant to injury
More verbal problems than visuospatial
Most mild cases recover within a month
1. But some can have persistent problems
6.
7.
8.
9.
Most moderate cases within 1-2 years
Frontal lobes: Metamemory and strategies
Very susceptible to interference
Require some different types of interventions
Concussions
1.
2.
3.
4.
19% chance for school athletes per year
Likely memory problems: few days/weeks
Loss of consciousness, orientation, increases risk
Possibility of persistent LTM problems should be
considered
5. Athletes will deny so they can play again
6. Pre-season baseline testing important (IMPACT)
7. Temporal window of vulnerability when second
injury results in magnified cognitive deficits (case)
Post-Concussion Syndrome
1. These are acute effects
2. Headaches, dizziness/vertigo, nausea, light
and noise sensitivity, fatigue,
hypersomnia/insomnia, irritability, emotional
dysregulation, dysmnesia, attention
problems, processing speed, working
memory
3. There can be long-term effects, such as
vertigo
Concussion Case Study
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Soccer player; kick to head
No loss of consciousness
Some amnesia first few days
Serious and persistent concussion symptoms
30 days later
1. Verbal and visuospatial WM down 1 SD
2. Verbal and visuospatial LTM down, esp. visual-spatial
6. Six months later; all recovered except visualspatial LTM
Extreme Prematurity
1. Hypoxia due to poorly developed lungs can
damage hippocampus
2. Myelination adds to memory problems
3. Those born prior to 32 weeks have significant
risk of memory problems
4. Episodic and “everyday” memory problems
may be more serious than semantic memory
problems
Type I Diabetes
1.
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3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Hippocampus sensitive to glucose levels
Growing numbers of diabetic children
Greater risk with earlier onset
Greater risk with poorly controlled insulin
Hypoglycemia damages hippocampus
Memory functions decline over time
Children of diabetic mothers also at risk
Even nondiabetics with poor insulin control
Adequate glucose also important for WM
Epilepsy
1. 10% have significant memory impairment
2. Depends on type, severity, frequency, and
location of seizures
3. Temporal lobe type most devastating
4. Especially known for “accelerated forgetting”
5. Seizures disrupt consolidation
6. Six-year old case from Session I update
PTSD
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Due to abuse, trauma or witnessing violence
Do not need actual PTSD diagnosis for impact
More PTSD symptoms, more LTM deficits
Vietnam PTSD; 26% hippocampal reduction
Cortisol damages hippocampus
Temporarily elevated cortisol reduces
encoding
7. Chronic stress causes LTM problems
Depression and Anxiety
1. Depressed adults have a 12 – 15% reduction
in hippocampal volume
2. Depends on the number and duration of
depressive episodes
3. Hippocampus damage is less when
depression is treated
4. Anxiety primarily affects encoding
FAS and Alcohol Consumption
1. FAS children have a smaller hippocampus
2. Even mild alcohol consumption increases risk
for LTM problems, which usually go
undetected
3. Effects are dose-dependent
4. Difficulty inhibiting interference
Anorexia and Memory
1. Problems during and after illness
2. Working memory
3. Verbal recall and Visual-spatial recall
1. Due to reduced cerebral blood flow and high levels
of stress hormones (corticosteroids) and glucose and
nutritional deficiencies, e.g. vitamin B.1
4. Have enhanced memory for maladaptive
perceptions of food
1. Evidence that memories are of what you perceive
Disorders with High Risk of Memory
Impairment
1. Learning disability
2. Language impairment
3. ADHD (semantic memory and strategy
deficits)
4. Autism (semantic memory, strategy, facial
memory deficits)
5. Down syndrome (interference)
Discussion
What are the assessment and intervention
implications of the risk factors?
WM Assessment Challenges
1.
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7.
8.
Other processes interrelated
Interrelated with LTM
No standardized inclusive composites
Can’t easily separate some components
No complete batteries
No easy way to assess strategy use
Examinee’s expertise/automaticity
Ecological validity; tests well but doesn’t
perform well in classroom and daily life
LTM Memory Assessment Challenges
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Time consuming
Memory abilities versus strategy usage
Everyday mem. vs formal test activities
Episodic vs semantic
Can’t control learning opportunities
Difficult to isolate memory processes
Difficult to test consolidation
Poor labeling on standardized measures
Influence of STM, WM, other processes
Working Memory Assessment
1. Test all 5 WM/STM components
1.
2.
3.
4.
To identify strengths and weaknesses
To understand learning & WM problems
Because they are neurologically separable
More testing = higher reliability & validity
2. Observations and interviews important
3. Rating scales helpful
LTM Processes to Test
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Verbal Episodic
Visual-Spatial Episodic
Encoding
Consolidation (must have 24+ delayed recall)
Storage/Recognition
Retrieval Fluency
Health and Developmental History
1. History of any at-risk conditions, e.g. diabetes
2. Complete history, beginning pre-natal
3. Health risk factors
1. Age of onset
2. Episodes leading to hospitalization
3. Any treatment
4. Developmental concerns, e.g. language
development
Academic and Learning History
1. Academic markers
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Diagnosed disorders
Learning problems
Grade retention
Progress worse as memory demands increase
Studies but performs poorly on exams
2. Memory concerns reported by teachers
Interviews
1. Include memory items in teacher interviews
2. With parents, adapt teacher items for home
environment
3. Directly question older students
4. Assess metamemory
5. Elicit their hypotheses about learning and
memory problems
Link
Observations: General Findings
Regarding WM
1. WM failure leads to abandonment of activity
without completing it
2. Reserved in group activities
3. Short attention spans
4. Poor monitoring of work quality
5. Loses place in complicated tasks
6. Examples of evidence-based WM behaviors
7. LTM Observations
Metamemory
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Link
Understanding memory functions
Self-awareness of strengths/weaknesses
Regulating/controlling memory
Strategy knowledge and monitoring
Simple strategy use by age 3
Conditional knowledge (why a strategy works)
Metamemory development is an essential
intervention piece; so, it needs to be assessed
8. Metamemory interview items
Signs of Poor Metamemory
Development
1. Not aware of existing memory problems
2. No understanding of how memory works
3. Poor estimates of how much will be
remembered (usually over estimates)
4. Has no realistic idea of how to make a
memory stronger
5. Has no memorization strategies
6. Not aware of different types of memories
Strategy Development
1. Strategies enhance memory performance
2. Strategies more important for LTM than WM
3. Do children have memory problems because
they lack strategy development?
1. Usually not (Swanson regarding WM)
4. Driven by the demands of the environment
Metamemory and Strategy
Assessment
1. A standardized measure is lacking
2. Assess:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Knowledge of memory functions
Knowledge of LTM strengths/weaknesses
Accuracy of JOL’s
Knowledge of strategies and use of strategies
Try CVLT for semantic clustering
After testing, ask what strategies were used
Informal Strategy Assessment
1. Question student during interview
2. Observe during testing
1. Rehearsing
2. Recoding
3. Chunking
3. Question after all testing completed
4. Try n-back with cards and see if examinee
develops a strategy
Rehearsal Ability
1. Give child a series of words and ask him/her
to repeat 5 times rapidly
2. Children with significant memory problems
have difficulty maintaining the sequence
during rehearsal
3. Will avoid using rehearsal when directed to
do so
Consider Related Processes
1. Test other processes that are closely linked
with memory components
2. Test memory when related processes are
weak
3. Link
Testing WM with Cognitive Scales:
Advantages
1. No need to buy separate scales
2. Usually do not confound learning/LTM
encoding with STM or WM components
3. Tend to use traditional, purer measures of
STM and WM
4. Correlations with other cognitive processes
are known
5. Correlations with achievement scales
Cognitive Scales Disadvantages
1. Some measure only auditory/verbal
2. Some classify visual-spatial STM and WM
under visual processing
3. Some confound STM and WM
4. Some do not have pure visual-spatial
5. Multi-battery testing necessary
Intellectual/Cognitive Tests with
Working Memory Subtests
1. May be better than memory batteries
2. Most do not assess all WM components
3. Go by what is measured; not by subtest title
or test author’s classification
See selective tables for cognitive and other
scales
WM Components in Broad Memory
Batteries
Pros:
• Comprehensive assessment of most memory
systems
• Include learning measures, learning rate
Cons:
• STM subtests often confounded with learning
• Misleading test names
Link
• See comprehensive list in MPA manual
Advantages to Testing with
Memory Batteries
1.
2.
3.
4.
Can compare with STM and WM directly
Fewer confounds with other cog. processes
More in-depth memory assessment
Include recognition (retrieval) measures
1. Memory battery required for this
5. Include learning (encoding) measures
6. Both visual and verbal
Disadvantages to Testing with
Memory Batteries
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
No semantic memory measures
No measures of consolidation
Do not measure “everyday” memory
No metacognitive or strategy measures
Maybe too much structure
Measures of STM and WM are “messy”
Dehn: Task Analysis/Classification
of Subtests
1. Consider definition of the process
2. Consider factor analytic information
3. What is the primary process being measured
by the subtest? (not just input or output)
4. Which primary process allows the examinee
to successfully complete the task
5. Consider what the task is typically used to
measure
Selective & Multi-Battery Testing
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Start with batteries you have
Try to limit number of supplemental batteries
Avoid redundancies
Tests should be normed about the same time
Only selected subtests administered
Composites are preferred, or two subtests
May include rating scales
Use multi-battery analysis procedures
WM Case Study: “Jacob”
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Age 13; 7th grade
Foster care; special ed placement
3 months premature; failure to thrive
Early elementary IQ of 70; recent IQ of 95
ADHD diagnosis; poor organization
Social skills problems
Difficulty completing homework
Moderately high test anxiety
Case Study Continued
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Likes to read
Struggles with Math and Written Lang.
Reading Composite – 106
Math Composite – 88
Wr. Lang. Composite – 73
Oral Lang Composite - 87
Group Task: Generate WM deficit hypotheses
and related processing deficit hypotheses
Planning a Processing Assessment
1. Complete the processing assessment planner
on case study
2. Consider concern
3. Hypothesize which processes involved
4. Consider non-processing hypotheses
5. Fill in all processes tested by primary scale
6. Find other scales to cover remaining
processes See Partially Completed Example
Memory Analysis Worksheet
1. Composite scores from test manual when
possible
2. Convert all scores to standard scores
3. Compute clinical scores by averaging
4. Compute processing or memory mean or
use IQ
5. Calculate discrepancies
6. Determine weaknesses and deficits
7. Do pairwise comparisons
1. Opposites and those closely related
Weaknesses vs Deficits
1. Scores below 90 are normative weaknesses
2. Intra-individual strengths & weaknesses use
12 points
3. Deficit = both normative and intra-individual
weakness (deficit is a “strong” weakness)
1. A deficit is rare
2. Indicates underlying neurological impairment
3. Learners with deficits really need interventions
Non-Unitary Scores
1. When standard score difference is greater
than 22 points
2. Something different is being measured or
something is different about the task
3. Investigate further with more testing if
cannot be explained
Hypothesis Testing
1. Consider deficit hypotheses proposed prior
to testing
2. Examine scores: support or not
3. Consider other data
4. Give weight to functional evidence
5. Be wary of confirmation bias or Type I errors:
Seeing a weakness/deficit where there is
none
Consistency Approach
1. With processing and memory assessment,
use a consistency approach, not a
discrepancy approach
1. Low WM + low academic skill = SLD
2. NOT high WM + low academic skill
When Does a WM Deficit Support
an SLD Diagnosis?
1. When the memory or processing component
is one that is related to the academic skill
deficiency
2. When both the academic skill and WM
component are similarly low (consistency
approach)
3. When WM is significantly higher, it may not
be SLD or there could be some other cause of
poor skills
Pairwise Comparisons
1. More for intervention planning, not diagnosis
2. Pay most attention to:
1. Opposites
2. Those that are closely related
3. A greater discrepancy is required for
significance
4. Significant when confidence intervals do not
overlap
Discuss Jacob’s Results
Link
Do his memory and processing deficits account
for his learning problems?
Psych Report Components
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Explain cross-battery selective testing
Explain how analysis was conducted
Explain what is being used to predict scores
Integrate results by memory components
Define each component
Explain how it relates to academics
See Labeling example
Discussion
What new assessment procedure or analysis
procedure did you learn about today that you
plan to use in the future when conducting
assessments or analyzing data?
Psychological Processing Analyzer (PPA) 4.0
& Memory Processing Analyzer (MPA) 2.0
1. Download software packages that apply
statistical procedures to PSW analysis
2. Conducts PSW among 11 psychological
processes or 11 memory processes
3. Conducts PSW among 8 achievement areas
4. Identifies statistically significant intra-individual
strengths, weaknesses, deficits, and assets and
significant pair differences
5. Identifies consistency between low processes
and related areas of low achievement
Composites and Subtests
1. Can enter composite and/or subtest scores
2. Allows scores from cognitive, achievement,
rating, and processing scales
See Lists
3. Includes latest tests, updated every year;
pre-1999 excluded
Processes Analyzed by the PPA
1. Attention
2. Auditory Processing
3. Executive Functions
4. Fine Motor
5. Fluid Reasoning
6. Long-Term Recall
7. Oral Language
8. Phonological Processing
9. Processing Speed
10.Visual-Spatial Processing
11.Working Memory (WM)
Achievement Areas on the PPA 4.0
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Basic Reading Skills
Reading Fluency
Reading Comprehension
Math Calculation
Math Problem Solving
Written Expression
Oral Expression
Listening Comprehension
Memory Processes
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Phonological Short-Term Memory
Visual-Spatial Short-Term Memory
Verbal Working Memory
Visual-Spatial Working Memory
Executive Working Memory
Long-Term Memory Verbal Recall
Long-Term Memory Visual-Spatial Recall
Long-Term Memory Encoding/Learning
Long-Term Memory Consolidation
Long-Term Memory Storage/Recognition
Long-Term Memory Retrieval Fluency
Composites and Subtests
1. Does not include all composites and subtests
in each battery
2. Composite and subtests are limited to those
that primarily are measuring that process
3. Some are re-classified based on the primary
demands of the task
4. Crystallized intelligence excluded on the PPA
Main Equations
1. Converts all scores (except raw scores) to standard
scores with a mean of 100/SD of 15
2. .01 or .05 level of significance
3. Normative weakness cutoff options: 80, 85, and 90
4. Difference formulas based on reliability coefficients of
composites/subtests
5. Regression toward the mean
6. Predicted score based on mean of other 10
7. Non-unitary scores are flagged
8. Checks processes and achievement for consistency
using difference formula
Using the PPA and MPA
1. Select and administer tests for processes
Link
2. No minimum number of processes required
3. Enter scaled scores, T-scores, standard scores
4. Program transforms scores to standard scores
5. Option of entering unlisted composites &
subtests
6. IQ can be used as predictor
Normative Weakness Options
1. Can select the average range
2. Will apply to all entries
3. Options:
1. 90-109
2. 85-114
3. 80-119
4. This will determine what is identified as
normative weaknesses and also the deficits
5. If using the deficit rule, then use 90-109
Using the Mean or IQ/Cognitive
Composite as Predictor of Processes
1. Okay to use IQ as predictor because it has
high correlations with most processes
2. Is technically more appropriate because it
has known reliability and SEM
3. Use when only weak processes tested
4. Use when only a few processes tested
5. Use when a legal challenge is anticipated
6. Do not use when processes pull down IQ
Entering Unlisted Scores
1. If a composite, type it in uppercase
2. Must know the reliability coefficient and
enter it
3. Only one unlisted entry per area
4. Cannot combine with listed scores
5. More entries and combining entries will be
allowed in next update in winter 2016
Entering Process, Memory, and
Achievement Scores
1. In first column select composites, subtests, or
unlisted score
2. Up to 4 of each or only 1 unlisted score
3. Within same area cannot mix composite and
subtest scores
4. In second column click on the composite or
subtest
5. In third column enter score
Non-Unitary Scores
1. When standard score difference is greater
than 22 points
1. Can use a difference of 15 points
2. PPA software uses 22 points
2. Something different is being measured or
something is different about the task
3. Investigate further with more testing if it
cannot be explained
PPA PSW Achievement Analysis
1. This is a within achievement PSW analysis: what
are the strengths and weaknesses among
achievement
2. IQ or the mean of the processes is not allowed
as the predictor of the achievement scores
3. The mean of the achievement scores is the
predictor
4. Other PPA analysis criteria and procedures apply
Checking Pairs for Significance
1. Pairwise comparisons of process scores is not
diagnostic but provides more details and
intervention ideas
1. Only logically connected process pairs included
2. Achievement and Process pairs are diagnostic
1. Only related pairs included
2. The “no’s” are diagnostic
3. “No” means they are not significantly different
and therefore consistent
See Example
Processing-Achievement Consistency
1. When the process score and achievement score
are consistent, this is evidence that the
processing weakness is causing the achievement
deficiency
2. When process score significantly higher than
achievement, something other than the process
is causing the achievement deficiency
3. When the process score is significantly weaker
than the achievement, the student is
overachieving or other strong processes are
being used to compensate
PPA and MPA Reports
1. Results tables, graphs, and a narrative
2. Pairwise comparisons also provided
3. Narrative and colored score charts can be
saved to Word document
4. See sample report
Purchasing the PPA 4.0
• Available at www.psychprocesses.com
• For individual use: $129
– A download to your computer
– Unlimited use
• Five-year site license available based on total
student population in district
–
–
–
–
Cost effective when 10 or more users
Free updates for 5 years
Free training via webinar
Technical support
Free PPA and MPA Manuals
For a free PDF copy of the PPA or MPA manuals,
email [email protected]
Entering Unlisted Scores
1. If a composite, type it in uppercase
2. Must know the reliability coefficient and
enter it
3. Only one unlisted entry per area
4. Cannot combine with listed scores
5. More entries and combining entries will be
allowed in next update in winter 2016