Transcript psych_ch07

Memory
Chapter 7: Memory
Case Study: H.M. and His Missing Memories
Section 1: Memory Classifications and Processes
Section 2: Three Stages of Memory
Section 3: Forgetting and Memory Improvement
Experiment: Applying What You’ve Learned
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Memory
Case Study: H.M. and His Missing Memories
Brain surgery that cured H.M. of seizures left him with severe memory
loss.
Cause for the Surgery
Results of the Surgery
• H.M. underwent brain surgery to • H.M. was unable to transfer
information from his short-term
reduce epileptic seizures.
memory to his long-term
• Temporal lobe surgery is now
memory.
rare.
• Today we know that the
temporal lobe has an important
function in memory, speech,
and hearing.
• His ability to remember
nonverbal information was
severely impaired.
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Memory
What do you think?
• Of the many abilities that make up what we know as
memory, which did H.M. lose and which did he retain?
• Do you think the surgery that cured H.M. of seizures
made his life better?
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Memory
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Memory
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Memory
Section 1 at a Glance
Memory Classifications and Processes
• Memory can be classed as explicit or implicit. Two main
types of explicit memory are episodic and semantic.
• Memory of sensory input involves three distinct functions:
encoding, storage, and retrieval.
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Memory
Memory Classifications and Processes
Main Idea
Memory is the process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information.
Memory includes factual and general information, experiences of
events, and skills.
Reading Focus
• What are the three kinds of memory?
• How does encoding of memories work?
• What are the processes of memory storage?
• What factors affect memory retrieval?
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Memory
How did a small cake
and a cup of tea elicit
memories of a garden?
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Memory
Three Kinds of Memory
• Memory is the process by which we recollect prior experiences and
information and skills learned in the past.
• There are three different kinds of memory.
Episodic Memory
• Episodic memory is memory of a
specific event.
• A flashbulb memory is a memory of an
important and intense event.
• Examples of flashbulb memory: the
memory of the terrorist attacks of 9/11
and the assassination of John F.
Kennedy.
Semantic Memory
• Semantic memory is the memory of
facts, words, and concepts.
• Episodic and semantic memories are
both examples of explicit memory,
which is a memory of specific
information.
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Memory
Implicit Memory
• Implicit memory is memory of things that are implied, or not clearly
stated.
• Implicit memory includes practiced skills and learned habits.
• Skills learned often stay with people for a lifetime, even if they do not
use them very often.
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Memory
Reading Check
Summarize
What are the three main types of memory?
Answer: episodic, semantic, and implicit
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Memory
Encoding
• The translation of information into a form in which it can be used is called
encoding.
• Encoding is the first stage of processing information.
Visual and Acoustic Codes
Semantic Codes
• One type of code is visual.
• Another type of code is semantic.
• People use visual codes when they
form a mental picture.
• A semantic code represents information
in terms of its meaning.
• Another type of code is acoustic.
• People use acoustic codes when they
use sound.
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Memory
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Memory
Reading Check
Identify
What different types of coding does the mind
use?
Answer: Student answers will vary, but should
include examples of using visual, acoustic, and
semantic coding.
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Memory
Storage
• Storage is the maintenance of encoded information.
• It is the second process of memory.
Maintenance Rehearsal
Elaborative Rehearsal
• Mechanical or rote repetition of
information in order to keep from
forgetting it is called maintenance
rehearsal.
• A more effective way to remember new
information is to relate it to information
you already know.
• The more time spent on it, the longer
the information will be remembered.
• This method is called elaborative
rehearsal.
• It is widely used in education.
• It does not connect information to past
learning and is therefore a poor way to
put information in permanent storage.
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Memory
Organizational Systems
Filing Errors
• Stored memories become
organized and arranged in the mind
for future use.
•
Our ability to remember is subject
to error.
•
Errors can occur because we file
information incorrectly.
• In some ways, the mind is like a
storehouse of files and file cabinets
in which you store what you learn
and what you need to remember.
• Your memory organizes information
into classes according to common
features.
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Memory
Reading Check
Explain
How does elaborative rehearsal help your
memory use organizational systems?
Answer: Through elaborative rehearsal, new
information will be organized in such a way that it
is linked to existing information.
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Memory
Retrieval
• Retrieval consists of locating stored information and returning it to conscious
thought.
• Retrieval is the third stage of processing information.
Context-Dependent Memory
State-Dependent Memory
• Context-dependent memories are
• Memories that are retrieved because
information that is more easily retrieved
the mood in which they were originally
in the context or situation in which it was
encoded is recreated are called stateencoded and stored.
dependent memories.
• Such memories are dependent on the
place where they were encoded and
stored.
• Memory is better when people are in
the same mood as when the information
was acquired.
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Memory
On the Tip of the Tongue
• Trying to retrieve memories that are not very well organized or are
incomplete can be highly frustrating.
• Sometimes we are so close to retrieving the information that it seems
as though the information is on the “tip of the tongue.”
• Psychologists call this phenomenon the feeling-of-knowing
experience.
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Memory
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Memory
Reading Check
Contrast
What clues can help you remember a
context-dependent memory? a statedependent memory?
Answer: context-dependent—being in the location
where the memory was encoded; statedependent—being in the same mood as when the
memory was encoded
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Memory
Current Research in Psychology
Unreliable Memories, Unreliable Witnesses
“Misleading details can be planted into a person’s memory for an event that
actually occurred. It is also possible to plant entirely false memories,” according
to Elizabeth Loftus and Daniel Bernstein (Bernstein et al., 2005).
• Loftus has shown that false
memories exist and also that
feeling sure about a memory does
not prove the memory is a reliable
one.
• One factor in false memory is
source confusion.
• Psychological research is helping
train police investigators to avoid
using interviewing techniques that
can mislead witnesses.
• One example is pressing for more
additional details when a witness
has already expressed uncertainty.
• If a person has a “gist trace” of a
memory rather than a “verbatim”
trace, the memory is likely to be
false or inaccurate.
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Memory
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Memory
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Memory
Thinking Critically
• How can you tell if a “memory” is false or inaccurate?
• According to Loftus, “Who we are may be shaped by our
memories, but our memories are shaped by who we are
and what we have been led to believe.” What do you
think she means?
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Memory
Section 2 at a Glance
Three Stages of Memory
• In sensory memory, each of the senses records its input
in a distinct register.
• Sense data that receive attention are retained in shortterm memory.
• Information from short-term memory can be stored in
long-term memory if it is encoded and linked to other
stored information.
• Information can be quickly retrieved from long-term
memory because long-term memory is structured, or
organized.
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Memory
Three Stages of Memory
Main Idea
The three stages of memory storage are sensory input, short-term or
working memory, and long-term memory.
Reading Focus
• What are the three types of sensory memory?
• How does short-term memory work?
• How do schemas affect long-term memory?
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Memory
How could roses
affect one's ability to
remember facts?
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Memory
Sensory Memory
• Sensory memory is the first stage of information storage.
• It consists of the immediate, initial recording of data that enter
through the senses.
• Psychologists believe that each of the five senses has a register.
• Mental pictures we form of visual stimuli are called icons, which are
held in a sensory register called iconic memory.
• Iconic memories are very brief.
• The rare ability to remember visual stimuli over long periods of time is
called eidetic imagery.
• Mental traces of sounds are held in a mental sensory register called
echoic memory.
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Memory
Reading Check
Infer
Why do scientists believe there are five
sensory memory registers?
Answer: because scientists believe there are five
senses
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Memory
Short-Term Memory
• Also called working memory, short-term memory is memory that holds
information briefly before it is either stored in long-term memory or is
forgotten.
The Primacy and Recency
Effects
Chunking
• The tendency to recall the last item or
items in a series is called the recency
effect.
• Psychologist George Miller found that
the average person’s short-term
memory can hold a list of seven items.
• The primacy effect is the tendency to
recall the initial item or items in a series.
• The organization of items into familiar or
manageable units is called chunking.
• There is no definitive explanation of the
primacy effect or the recency effect.
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Memory
Interference
• Interference occurs when new information appears in short-term
memory and takes the place of what was already there.
• Short-term memory is a temporary solution to the problem of
remembering information.
• It is the bridge between sensory memory and long-term memory.
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Memory
Reading Check
Find the Main Idea
Why is short-term memory also called
working memory?
Answer: because information must be in short-term memory in
order to be remembered and manipulated
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Memory
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Memory
Long-Term Memory
• Long-term memory is the third and final stage of information storage.
• It is the stage of memory capable of large and relatively permanent storage.
Memory as Reconstruction
Schemas
• Memories are not recorded and played
back like videos or movies.
• They are reconstructed from our
experiences.
• Schemas are the mental
representations that we form of the
world by organizing bits of information
into knowledge.
• We shape memories according to the
personal and individual ways in which
we view the world.
• Schemas influence the ways we
perceive things and the ways our
memories store what we perceive.
• We tend to remember things in
accordance with our beliefs and needs.
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Memory
Capacity of Memory
• Psychologists have not yet discovered a limit to how much can be
stored in a person’s long-term memory.
• We do not store all of our experiences permanently.
• Our memory is limited by the amount of attention we pay to things.
• The memories we store in long-term memory are the incidents and
experiences that have the greatest impact on us.
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Memory
Reading Check
Summarize
How do schemas help us remember?
Answer: Schemas provide us with a way of
organizing information into units that can be more
easily stored and recalled.
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Memory
Section 3 at a Glance
Forgetting and Memory Improvement
• The three basic remembering tasks are recognition,
recall, and relearning.
• Much of what we think of as remembering actually
involves reconstructing ideas based on associations.
• Forgetting, or memory failure, can be caused by a
malfunction in encoding, storage, or retrieval.
• Forgetting can occur at any stage of memory.
• Knowledge of how remembering and forgetting occur has
led to practical techniques for improving memory.
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Memory
Forgetting and Memory Improvement
Main Idea
The three tasks of remembering are recognition, recall, and relearning.
Failure of any of these results in forgetting.
Reading Focus
• How does forgetting happen?
• What are the three basic memory tasks?
• How are the three ways of forgetting different?
• What are some techniques for improving memory?
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Memory
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Memory
What memories
make the greatest
impression?
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Memory
Forgetting
• Forgetting can occur at any one of the three stages of memory.
• Information encoded in sensory memory decays almost immediately
unless it is transferred into short-term memory.
• Short-term memory will disappear after only 10 to 12 seconds unless
it is transferred into long-term memory.
• Information stored in short-term memory is lost when it is displaced
by new information.
• The most familiar and significant cases of forgetting involve the
inability to use information in long-term memory.
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Memory
Reading Check
Contrast
How does forgetting information in shortterm memory differ from forgetting
information in long-term memory?
Answer: Information in short-term memory is
quickly forgotten when it is crowded out by new
information; information in long-term memory
typically remains there until it fades away.
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Memory
Basic Memory Tasks
Recognition
• Recognition is one of the three basic memory tasks and involves
identifying objects or events that have been encountered before.
• It is the easiest of the memory tasks.
Recall
• Recall is the second memory task and involves bringing something
back to mind.
• In recall, you do not immediately recognize something you have
come across before.
• You have to “search” for it and possibly reconstruct it in your mind.
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Memory
Relearning
• The third basic memory task is relearning.
• Relearning involves learning something a second time, usually in less
time than it was originally learned.
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Memory
Click on the image to play the Interactive.
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Memory
Reading Check
Analyze
What do experiments with nonsense
syllables prove about recognition, recall,
and relearning?
Answer: They show that people may identify objects
encountered before (recognition), that recall drops off
quickly, and relearning occurs more quickly than learning
information for the first time.
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Memory
Different Kinds of Forgetting
• Much forgetting is due to interference or decay.
• Interference occurs when new information takes the place of what has been
placed in memory.
• Decay is the fading away of a memory over time.
• Both are part of normal forgetting.
• There are more extreme kinds of forgetting.
Repression
Amnesia
• Freud says we sometimes forget things
on purpose without knowing it because
some memories are painful and
unpleasant.
• Amnesia is severe memory loss, which
is often caused by trauma to the brain.
• He called this kind of forgetting
repression.
• People with retrograde amnesia forget
the period leading up to a traumatic
event.
• Memory loss of events after trauma is
called anterograde amnesia.
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Memory
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Memory
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Memory
Infantile Amnesia
• Retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia are extreme and rare.
• One type of amnesia that everyone experiences is infantile
amnesia, which is the forgetting of events before the age of three.
• Infantile amnesia is based on biological and cognitive factors.
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Memory
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Memory
Reading Check
Recall
What are the five types of forgetting
discussed in this section?
Answer: decay, repression, retrograde amnesia, anterograde
amnesia, infantile amnesia
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Memory
Improving Memory
Drill and Practice
• Drill and practice, or repetition, is
one way to remember information.
• It is an effective way to transfer
information from sensory memory
to short-term memory and from
short-term memory to long-term
memory.
Form Unusual
Associations
• Memory can be enhanced by
forming unusual associations.
Relate to Existing
Knowledge
• Elaborative rehearsal—relating new
information to what you already
know—is another way to improve
memory.
Use Mnemonic Devices
• Mnemonic devices combine chunks
of information into a catchy or
easily recognizable format.
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Memory
Reading Check
Make Generalizations
How can you make new information easier
to remember?
Answer: relate to existing knowledge, form associations,
use mnemonic devices
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Memory
Experiment: Applying What You’ve Learned
Effective Memory Improvement
Which method of memorization is most effective?
1. Introduction
2. Planning Your Experiments
• You and your classmates will
evaluate the methods of memory
improvement discussed in this
chapter.
• Frame a research question.
• Form a hypothesis.
• Plan how to test the hypothesis.
• You will use each method and
compare its effectiveness.
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Memory
Experiment (con’t.)
3. Designing and Conducting Your
Memory Test
4. Analyzing and Interpreting the
Results
• Develop the memory test.
• Compile and analyze data.
• Conduct your test and record the
data on a data sheet.
• Draw conclusions about the data.
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Memory
Experiment (con’t.)
5. Discussion
• Look back and evaluate the
experiment.
• Use the questions in your textbook
in your discussion.
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