Transcript lab rev
APES LAB Review Brian Kaestner Saint Mary’s Hall Introductory Environmental Journal Basic Lab Format: Purpose/Hypothesis Materials Procedure Data Collection Data Analysis Conclusion The Dynamics of Plate Tectonics: Earthquakes and Volcanic Activity Features of the Crust Oceanic crust (lithosphere) Abyssal Oceanic floor ridge Abyssal floor Abyssal plain Abyssal hills Trench Folded mountain belt Craton Volcanoes Continental shelf Continental slope Continental rise Abyssal plain Continental crust (lithosphere) Mantle (lithosphere) Mantle (lithosphere) Mantle (asthenosphere) Fig. 10.3, p. 213 Reykjanes Ridge EURASIAN PLATE JUAN DE FUCA PLATE CHINA SUBPLATE Transform fault PHILIPINE PLATE PACIFIC PLATE MidIndian Ocean Ridge Transform fault INDIAN-AUSTRLIAN PLATE Southeast Indian Ocean Ridge NORTH AMERICAN PLATE COCOS PLATE East Pacific Rise MidAtlantic Ocean Ridge EURASIAN PLATE ANATOLIAN PLATE CARIBBEAN PLATE ARABIAN PLATE AFRICAN PLATE SOUTH AMERICAN PLATE Carlsberg Ridge AFRICAN PLATE Transform fault Southwest Indian Ocean Ridge ANTARCTIC PLATE Convergent plate boundaries Plate motion at convergent plate boundaries Divergent ( ) and transform fault ( boundaries ) Plate motion at divergent plate boundaries Fig. 10.5b, p. 214 Internal Earth Processes Plate tectonics Lithosphere Asthenosphere Oceanic ridge at a divergent plate boundary Trench Volcanic island arc Divergent boundary Convergent boundary Subduction zone Lithosphere Rising magma Subduction zone Asthenosphere Trench and volcanic island arc at a convergent plate boundary Fracture zone Transform fault Transform fault Ring of Fire Lithosphere Fig. 10.6, p. 215 Refer to Fig. 10-5 p. 214 Asthenosphere Transform fault connecting two divergent plate boundaries The Rock Cycle and Soil Formation The Rock Cycle Transport Deposition Erosion Sedimentary Rock Shale, Sandstone, Limestone Heat, Pressure Weathering External Processes Internal Processes Metamorphic Rock Igneous Rock Heat, Slate, Quartzite, Granite, Pumice, Pressure Marble Basalt Magma (Molten Rock) Fig. 10.8, p. 217 Soils: Formation Soil horizons Soil profile Humus Immature soil O horizon Leaf litter A horizon Topsoil Regolith Bedrock B horizon Subsoil C horizon Young soil Parent material Fig. 10.12, p. 220 Mature soil Rove beetle Pseudoscorpion Flatworm Centipede Ant Ground beetle Mite Adult fly Roundworms Fly larvae Beetle Protozoa Mites Springtail Millipede Sowbug Bacteria Slug Fungi Actinomycetes Snail Mite Earthworms Organic debris Fig. 10.13, p. 221 Mosaic of closely packed pebbles, boulders Alkaline, dark, and rich in humus Weak humusmineral mixture Dry, brown to reddish-brown with variable accumulations of clay, calcium carbonate, and soluble salts Desert Soil (hot, dry climate) Clay, calcium compounds Grassland Soil (semiarid climate) Fig. 10.15a, p. 223 Forest litter leaf mold Acidic lightcolored humus Humus-mineral mixture Light-colored and acidic Light, grayishbrown, silt loam Iron and aluminum compounds mixed with clay Tropical Rain Forest Soil (humid, tropical climate) Acid litter and humus Humus and iron and aluminum compounds Dark brown Firm clay Deciduous Forest Soil (humid, mild climate) Coniferous Forest Soil (humid, cold climate) Fig. 10.15b, p. 223 Environmental Influences on Population Distribution Population Dispersion Clumped (elephants) Uniform (creosote bush) Random (dandelions) Fig. 9.2, p. 199 Factors Affecting Population Size POPULATION SIZE Growth factors (biotic potential) Abiotic Favorable light Favorable temperature Favorable chemical environment (optimal level of critical nutrients) Biotic High reproductive rate Generalized niche Adequate food supply Suitable habitat Ability to compete for resources Ability to hide from or defend against predators Ability to resist diseases and parasites Ability to migrate and live in other habitats Ability to adapt to environmental change Decrease factors (environmental resistance) Abiotic Too much or too little light Temperature too high or too low Unfavorable chemical environment (too much or too little of critical nutrients) Biotic Low reproductive rate Specialized niche Inadequate food supply Unsuitable or destroyed habitat Too many competitors Insufficient ability to hide from or defend against predators Inability to resist diseases and parasites Inability to migrate and live in other habitats Inability to adapt to environmental change Fig. 9.3, p. 200 Reproductive Patterns and Survival Asexual reproduction r-selected species Sexual reproduction K-selected species K-Selected Species elephant r-Selected Species saguaro Fewer, larger offspring High parental care and protection of offspring Later reproductive age Most offspring survive to reproductive age Larger adults Adapted to stable climate and environmental conditions Lower population growth rate (r) Population size fairly stable and usually close to carrying capacity (K) Specialist niche High ability to compete Late successional species cockroach dandelion Many small offspring Little or no parental care and protection of offspring Early reproductive age Most offspring die before reaching reproductive age Small adults Adapted to unstable climate and environmental conditions High population growth rate (r) Population size fluctuates wildly above and below carrying capacity (K) Generalist niche Low ability to compete Early successional species Fig. 9.10b, p. 205 Survivorship Curves Percentage surviving (log scale) 100 10 1 0 Fig. 9.11, p. 206 Age Environmental Stress Organism Level Population Level Population Level Physiological changes Psychological changes Behavior changes Fewer or no offspring Genetic defects Birth defects Cancers Death Change in population size Change in age structure (old, young, and weak may die) Survival of strains genetically resistant to stress Loss of genetic diversity and adaptability Extinction Disruption of energy flow through food chains and webs Disruption of biogeochemical cycles Lower species diversity Habitat loss or degradation Less complex food webs Lower stability Ecosystem collapse Fig. 9.12, p. 208 Population Studies Sampling Population Species Diversity Index Population Distribution Population Density Doubling Time Carrying Capacity + Limiting factors Population Growth Rate Succession Food Webs Human Population Demographics DT = 70/pgr DT = doubling time pgr = population growth rate (%) Factors Affecting Human Population Size Population change equation Population Change = (Births + Immigration) – (Deaths + Emigration) Zero population growth (ZPG) Crude birth rate (BR) Crude death rate (DR) Refer to Fig. 11-2 p. 239 The Demographic Transition Stage 2 Transindustrial Stage 3 Industrial Stage 4 Postindustrial High 80 70 Relative population size Birth rate and death rate (number per 1,000 per year) Stage 1 Preindustrial 60 50 Birth rate 40 30 Death rate 20 10 0 Total population Low Increasing Growth Very high Decreasing Low Zero growth rate growth rate growth rate growth rate growth rate growth rate Low Negative growth rate Fig. 11.26, p. 255 Time Factors Affecting Natural Rate of Increase Rate of natural increase = crude birth rate = crude death rate Rate per 1,000 people 50 Crude birth rate 40 30 Rate of natural increase 20 Crude death rate Rate per 1,000 people Developed Countries 50 Rate of natural increase 40 Crude birth rate 30 20 10 10 Year Year 0 Developed Countries Crude death rate 0 Fig. 11.13, p. 245 Population Age Structure Male Female Rapid Growth Guatemala Nigeria Saudi Arabia Ages 0-14 Slow Growth United States Australia Canada Ages 15-44 Zero Growth Spain Austria Greece Negative Growth Germany Bulgaria Sweden Ages 45-85+ Fig. 11.16a, p. 247 Soil Analysis Soil Properties Fig. 10.17, p. 224 Water Water Infiltration Leaching High permeability Low permeability Porosity/permeability 100%clay Texture Structure pH 0 80 Increasing percentage clay 60 40 20 20 Increasing percentage silt 40 60 80 Fig. 10.16, p. 224 0 100%sand 80 60 40 20 100%silt Increasing percentage sand Water High permeability Water Low permeability Fig. 10.17, p. 224 100%clay 0 80 clay 20 60 Increasing percentage clay 40 silty clay sandy clay 40 60 clay loam sandy clay loam 20 silty clay loam loam 0 100%sand loamy sand 80 80 silty loam sandy loam sand Increasing percentage silt silt 60 40 Increasing percentage sand 20 100%silt Fig. 10.16, p. 224 Energy Consumption The Importance of Improving Energy Efficiency Energy Inputs System Net useful energy Outputs 9% 7% Life cycle cost 84% Least Efficient Incandescent lights Internal combustion engine Nuclear power plants U.S. economy and lifestyles 7% 5% 4% Nonrenewable fossil fuels Nonrenewable nuclear Hydropower, geothermal, wind, solar Biomass 41% 43% Useful energy Petrochemicals Unavoidable energy waste Unnecessary energy waste Fig. 15.2, p. 359 Ways to Improve Energy Efficiency Insulation Elimination of air leaks Air to air heat exchangers Cogeneration Efficient electric motors High-efficiency lighting Increasing fuel economy Solutions: A Sustainable Energy Strategy Improve Energy Efficiency Increase fuel-efficiency standards for vehicles, buildings, and appliances Mandate government purchases of efficient vehicles and other devices Provide tax credits for buying efficient cars, houses, and appliances Offer tax credits for investments in efficiency Reward utilities for reducing demand More Renewable Energy Increase renewable energy to 40% by 2020 Provide subsidies and tax credits for renewable energy Use full-cost accounting and least-cost analysis for comparing all energy alternatives Encourage government purchase of renewable energy devices Increase renewable energy research and development Reduce Pollution and Health Risk Cut coal use 50% by 2020 Phase out coal subsidies Encourage independent power producers Increase efficiency research and development Levy taxes on coal and oil use Phase out nuclear power or put it on hold until 2020 Phase out nuclear power subsidies Fig. 15.42, p. 392 Air Pollution Outdoor Air Pollution Primary pollutants Secondary pollutants Primary Pollutants CO SO2 CO2 NO Secondary Pollutants NO2 Most hydrocarbons Most suspended particles SO3 HNO3 H2O2 – H2SO4 O3 PANs 2– salts Most NO3 and SO4 Natural Sources Stationary Mobile Fig. 17.4, p. 422 See Table 17-1 p. 421 See Table 17-2 p. 422 Temperature Inversions Subsidence inversion Radiation inversion Warmer air Increasing altitude Inversion layer Cool layer Mountain Mountain Valley Fig. 17.8, p. 426 Decreasing temperature Regional Outdoor Air Pollution from Acid Deposition Acid deposition Wet deposition Dry deposition Wind Transformation to sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3) Nitric oxide (NO) Acid fog Ocean Windborne ammonia gas and particles of cultivated soil partially neutralize acids and form dry sulfate and nitrate salts Sulfur dioxide (SO2) and NO Dry acid deposition (sulfur dioxide gas and particles of sulfate and nitrate salts) Wet acid deposition (droplets of H2SO4 and HNO3 dissolved in rain and snow) Farm Lakes in deep soil high in limestone are buffered Lakes in shallow soil low in limestone become acidic Fig. 17.9, p. 428 Solutions: Preventing and Reducing Air Pollution Clean Air Act National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) Primary and secondary standards Output control vs. input control Emission Reduction Fig. 17.21, p. 442 Fig. 17.22, p. 442 Prevention Burn low-sulfur coal Remove sulfur from coal Convert coal to a liquid or gaseous fuel Shift to less polluting fuels Dispersion or Cleanup Disperse emissions above thermal inversion layer with tall smokestacks Remove pollutants after combustion Tax each unit of pollution produced Cleaned gas Electrodes Dust discharge Dirty gas Electrostatic Precipitator Prevention Reducing Indoor Air Pollution Cover ceiling tiles and lining of AC ducts to prevent release of mineral fibers Use adjustable fresh air vents for work spaces Ban smoking or limit it to wellventilated areas Increase intake of outside air Set stricter formaldehyde emissions standards for carpet, furniture, and building materials Change air more frequently Prevent radon infiltration Use exhaust hoods for stoves and appliances burning natural gas Use office machines in well-ventilated areas Fig. 17.24, p. 443 Cleanup or Dilution Use less polluting substitutes for harmful cleaning agents, paints, and other products Circulate building’s air through rooftop greenhouses Install efficient chimneys for wood-burning stoves Toxicity Testing Risk and Probability Risk Probability Risk assessment Risk Assessment Hazard identification What is the hazard? Probability of risk How likely is the event? Consequences of risk What is the likely damage? Risk management Risk Management Comparative risk analysis How does it compare with other risks? Risk reduction How much should it be reduced? Risk reduction strategy How will the risk be reduced? Financial commitment How much money should be spent? Fig. 16.2, p. 297 Poison LD50 Median lethal dose See Table 16-1 p. 400 Percentage of population killed by a given dose Poisons 100 75 50 25 LD 0 2 4 6 50 8 10 12 14 Dose (hypothetical units) Fig. 16.5, p. 400 See Table 16-1 p. 400 16 Risk Analysis Risk analysis Risk probability Comparative risk analysis Cost-benefit analysis Risk management Risk perception Risk assessment Risk severity Is the risk acceptable? Cost–benefit Acceptable if benefits outweigh costs Natural standards Acceptable if risk is not greater than those created by natural hazard Expressed preferences Acceptable if people agree to accept the risks Revealed preferences Acceptable if risk is not greater than those currently tolerated Fig. 16.14, p. 412 Water Quality Testing DO BOD Temp Phosphates Nitrates Turbidity Types and Sources of Water Pollution Point sources Refer to Tables 19-1 and 19-2 p. 477 and 478 Nonpoint sources Biological oxygen demand Water quality Water Quality Do (ppm) at 20˚C Good 8-9 Slightly polluted 6.7-8 Moderately polluted Heavily polluted Gravely polluted 4.5-6.7 Below 4.5 Below 4 Fig. 19.2, p. 478 Pollution of Streams Oxygen sag curve Factors influencing recovery Types of organisms Clean Zone Normal clean water organisms (Trout, perch, bass, mayfly, stonefly) 8 ppm Decomposition Septic Zone Zone Trash fish (carp, gar, Leeches) Fish absent, fungi, Sludge worms, bacteria (anaerobic) Recovery Zone Trash fish (carp, gar, Leeches) Clean Zone Normal clean water organisms (Trout, perch, bass, mayfly, stonefly) 8 ppm Concentration Dissolved oxygen Oxygen sag Biological oxygen demand 2 ppm Direction of flow Point of waste or heat discharge Time of distance downstream Fig. 19.3, p. 479 Pollution of Lakes Eutrophication Slow turnover Thermal stratification Discharge of untreated municipal sewage (nitrates and phosphates) Nitrogen compounds produced by cars and factories Discharge of detergents ( phosphates) Discharge of treated municipal sewage (primary and secondary treatment: nitrates and phosphates) Natural runoff (nitrates and phosphates Manure runoff From feedlots (nitrates and Phosphates, ammonia) Runoff from streets, lawns, and construction Lake ecosystem lots (nitrates and nutrient overload phosphates) and breakdown of chemical cycling Runoff and erosion Dissolving of (from from cultivation, nitrogen oxides mining, construction, (from internal combustion and poor land use) engines and furnaces) Fig. 19.5, p. 482 Water/Wastewater Treatment Technological Approach: Sewage Treatment Mechanical and biological treatment Secondary Primary Bar screen Grit chamber Settling tank Aeration tank Settling tank Chlorine disinfection tank To river, lake, or ocean Raw sewage from sewers Sludge (kills bacteria) Activated sludge Air pump Sludge digester Sludge drying bed Disposed of in landfill or ocean or applied to cropland, pasture, or rangeland Fig. 19.15, p. 494 Technological Approach: Advanced Sewage Treatment Removes specific pollutants Effluent from Secondary treatment Alum flocculation plus sediments Desalination Activated (electrodialysis Nitrate carbon or reverse osmosis) removal 98% of suspended solids 90% of phosphates To rivers, lakes, streams, oceans, reservoirs, or industries 98% of dissolved organics Recycled to land for irrigation and fertilization Specialized compound removal (DDT, etc.) Most of dissolved salts Fig. 19.16, p. 495 Solid Waste Management 1st Priority 2nd Priority Primary Pollution and Waste Prevention Secondary Pollution and Waste Prevention • Change industrial process to eliminate use of harmful chemicals • Purchase different products • Use less of a harmful product • Reduce packaging and materials in products • Make products that last longer and are recyclable, reusable or easy to repair • Reduce products • Repair products • Recycle • Compost • Buy reusable and recyclable products Last Priority Waste Management • Treat waste to reduce toxicity • Incinerate waste • Bury waste in landfill • Release waste into environment for dispersal or dilution Fig. 21.4, p. 521 Reduces global warming Make fuel supplies last longer Reduces acid deposition Reduces urban air pollution Reduces air pollution Reduces energy demand Saves energy Reduces solid waste disposal Recycling Reduces mineral demand Reduces water pollution Protects species Reduces habitat destruction Fig. 21.7, p. 530 Source materials Natural gas Petroleum Coal Refining Feedstocks Monomers (small molecules) Polymerzation Polymers Resins (giant molecules) Manufacturing Blow molding (hollow objects) Products bottles, milk jugs, Soda bottles, drums, containers Molding (solid objects) Extrusion (Flat, rolled, and tubular shapes) Products appliance housing, CDs, toys, plastic parts, aircraft, boats Products Vinyl, siding, plastic film and bags, pipe Fig. 21.9, p. 534 Power plant Steam Smokestack Turbine Generator Crane Electricity Wet scrubber Boiler Electrostatic precipitator Furnace Conveyor Water Waste pit Bottom ash Conventional landfill Dirty water Waste treatment Fly ash Hazardous Waste landfill Fig. 21.10, p. 536 When landfill is full, layers of soil and clay seal in trash Electricity generator Methane storage and compressor building Topsoil Sand building Leachate treatment system Clay Garbage Methane gas recovery Pipe collect explosive methane gas used as fuel to generate electricity Leachate storage tanks Compacted solid waste Groundwater monitoring well Leachate monitoring well Leachate pipes Garbage Leachate pumped up to storage tanks for safe disposal Sand Synthetic liner Sand Clay Subsoil Groundwater Clay and plastic lining to prevent leaks; pipes collect leachate from bottom of landfill Fig. 21.12, p. 537 The Greenhouse Effect The Natural Greenhouse Effect Greenhouse effect Greenhouse gases (Refer to Table 18-1 p. 448) (a) Rays of sunlight penetrate the lower atmosphere and warm the earth's surface. (b) The earth's surface absorbs much of (c) As concentrations of greenhouse the incoming solar radiation and gases rise, their molecules absorb degrades it to longer-wavelength and emit more infrared radiation, infrared radiation (heat), which rises which adds more heat to the into the lower atmosphere. Some of lower atmosphere. this heat escapes into space and some is absorbed by molecules of greenhouse gases and emitted as Fig. 6.13, p. 128 infrared radiation, which warms the lower atmosphere. 360 340 320 300 280 Carbon dioxide 260 240 220 +2.5 200 0 180 –2.5 –5.0 Temperature change End of last ice age 160 120 80 40 0 Thousands of years before present –7.5 –10.0 Variation of temperature (˚C) from current level Concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere (ppm) 380 Fig. 18.3, p. 449 Parts per million 410 360 310 260 1800 1900 2000 2100 Year Carbon dioxide (CO2) Fig. 18.4a, p. 450 Parts per million 2.4 1.8 1.2 0.6 1800 1900 2000 2100 Year Methane (CH4) Fig. 18.4b, p. 450 Carbon dioxide Methane Nitrous oxide Index (1900 = 100) 250 200 150 100 1990 2000 2025 2050 Year 2075 2100 Fig. 18.5, p. 451 Human Activities and Earth’s Climate Increased use of fossil fuels Deforestation Global warming Melting icecaps and glaciers Coral reef bleaching Some Possible Effects of a Warmer World Agriculture • • • • Shifts in food-growing areas Changes in crop yields Increased irrigation demands Increased pests, crop diseases, and weeds in warmer areas Water Resources • Changes in forest composition and locations • Disappearance of some forests Increased drought • Increased fires from drying Increased flooding • Loss of wildlife habitat and species • Changes in water supply • Decreased water quality • • Biodiversity • Extinction of some plant and animal species • Loss of habitats • Disruption of aquatic life Forests Sea Level and Coastal Areas • • • • • • Weather Extremes Fig. 18.12, p. 458 • Prolonged heat waves and droughts • Increased flooding • More intense hurricanes, typhoons, tornadoes, and violent storms Rising sea levels Flooding of low-lying islands and coastal cities Flooding of coastal estuaries, wetlands, and coral reefs Beach erosion Disruption of coastal fisheries Contamination of coastal aquifiers with salt water Human Health Human Population • • Increased deaths • • More environmental refugees • • Increased migration • • Increased deaths from heat and disease Disruption of food and water supplies Spread of tropical diseases to temperate areas Increased respiratory disease Increased water pollution from coastal flooding Solutions: Dealing with the Threat of Climate Change Fig. 18.14, p. 461 Options Do nothing Do more research Act now to reduce risks No-regrets strategy Prevention Cut fossil fuel use (especially coal) Shift from coal to natural gas Transfer energy efficiency and renewable energy technologies to developing countries Improve energy efficiency Shift to renewable energy resources Reduce deforestation Use sustainable agriculture Slow population growth Cleanup Remove CO2 from smokestack and vehicle emissions Store (sequester CO2 by planting trees) Sequester CO2 underground Sequester CO2 in soil Sequester CO2 in deep ocean Acid Deposition Regional Outdoor Air Pollution from Acid Deposition Acid deposition Wet deposition Dry deposition Wind Transformation to sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3) Nitric oxide (NO) Acid fog Ocean Windborne ammonia gas and particles of cultivated soil partially neutralize acids and form dry sulfate and nitrate salts Sulfur dioxide (SO2) and NO Dry acid deposition (sulfur dioxide gas and particles of sulfate and nitrate salts) Wet acid deposition (droplets of H2SO4 and HNO3 dissolved in rain and snow) Farm Lakes in deep soil high in limestone are buffered Lakes in shallow soil low in limestone become acidic Fig. 17.9, p. 428 Acid Deposition and Humans Respiratory diseases Toxic metal leaching Decreased visibility Damage to structures, especially containing limestone Decreased productivity and profitability of fisheries, forests, and farms Acid Deposition and Aquatic Systems Water Fish declines boatman Whirligig Undesirable species Aluminum toxicity Acid shock Yellow perch Lake trout Brown trout Salamander (embryonic) Mayfly Smallmouth bass Mussel 6.5 6.0 5.5 5.0 pH 4.5 4.0 3.5 Fig. 17.13, p. 430 Acid Deposition, Plants, and Soil Effects of Weather Dry weather Acid deposition SO2 H2O2 NOX O3 Direct damage to leaves and needles Heavy metal release Low precipitation Dead leaves or needles Increased transpiration Water deficit Bark damage Acids Calcium Aluminum Magnesium Sulfate Nitrate Lake Reduced photosynthesis and growth Nutrient deficiency Soil acidification Weakens trees Increased susceptibility to frost, pests, fungi, mosses, and disease Increased evapotranspiration PANs Others Potassium Nutrient leaching Emissions Kills certain essential soil microorganisms Damage to tree crown Tree death Leaching ofRelease of toxic metal ions Disturbance soil nutrients of nutrient uptake Damage to Acids fine roots Disturbance and soil of water nutrients uptake Groundwater Fig. 17.14, p. 432 See Connections p. 431 The Effects of Radiation on Growth Calculate growth rate Graph exp and control data Analyze effects Predict effects due to natural exposure and nuclear accidents