Transcript GENERAL APPROACHES TOP THE CONTROL OF

BASIC PRINCIPLES IN
OCCUPATIONAL HYGIENE
职业卫生基本原则
Day 3
第3天
GENERAL APPROACHES TOP THE
CONTROL OF HEALTH RISKS
实现健康风险控制的常用方法
GENERAL APPROACHES TOP THE
CONTROL OF HEALTH RISKS
实现健康风险控制的常用方法
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GENERAL APPROACHES TO THE CONTROL OF RISKS TO HEALTH
实现健康风险控制的常用方法
The various steps taken to prevent or control the release of airborne contaminants, or propagation of some physical agents - in the work environment are outlined
and a range of examples given. These steps are commonly referred to as control measures and include combinations of mechanical engineering and
operational/procedural systems aimed at preventing or minimising exposures.
介绍避免或控制在工作环境中气载污染物的释放、或某些物理因素传播的各种方法，和各种相关示例。这些方法统称为控制措施，包括旨在避免或尽量减少风险的机械
工程和操作/程序系统。
Effective control is probably the single most important topic affecting health at work and underpins much of the legislative efforts designed to address health
protection at work.
有效控制可能是影响工作健康中最重要的主题，已采用诸多立法来解决工作健康保护问题。
If an occupational hygiene assessment/survey identifies a risk to health, then additional/improved control measures need to be considered and implemented.
如职业卫生评估/调查确定存在健康风险，需要考虑和执行额外/改进的控制措施。
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Types of Control Measures
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控制措施的类型
Exposure prevention is the principal aim of any control strategy, particularly when handling hazardous agents, capable of producing serious irreversible health
effects; such as carcinogens and ionising radiation. In other cases, hazard effect, practicability, economics etc., may not require that all exposures be prevented –
exposure minimisation may be considered sufficient.
风险预防是控制策略的主要目的，尤其是在处理会产生对健康造成不可逆影响（如致癌物质和电离辐射）的危险物质时。在其它情况下，从危害影响、实用性和经济型
等角度来看，可能不会要求避免所有的风险，只要求尽量减少风险。
A hierarchical approach combining varieties of both engineering and operational/procedural control measures is universally accepted, and is presented below in
decreasing order of desirability. In most cases effective control strategies will utilise combinations of several, if not all the measures listed.
目前，分级方法受到大众认可，该种方法中含有各种工程和操作/程序控制方法，下文将按其可取等级（从高到低）依次介绍。在大多数情况下，有效的控制策略是如
下所列几种方法的组合。
Soucre: Adrian Hirst
资料来源： Adrian Hirst
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Elimination/Substitutio
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消除/取代
The most effective form of prevention control is simply to either eliminate the use of the hazardous agent, or the actual process in which it is used. This is clearly not
often practicable, but quite commonly hazardous agents or processes can be substituted with relatively innocuous ones, e.g.
最有效的预防控制措施，只需弃用危险因素，或有危险因素的实际工序。 很显然，这种方法可行性不高，但是，可以采用危害性相对较小的因素或工序来取代常见的
危害因素或工序；例如：
Benzene replaced with toluene.
采用甲苯代替苯。
Carbon tetrachloride replaced with methyl chloroform.
采用四氯化碳代替甲基氯仿。
Talc replaced with chalk.
采用滑石粉取代粉笔。
Sand blasting replaced by steel shot blasting.
采用金属微粒喷光法取代喷砂。
Dry handling techniques replaced by wet handling techniques. i.e. suppression of dust emission (e.g. removal of asbestos lagging).
采用干式处理技术取代湿处理技术，即抑制粉尘排放（例如，去除石棉套衬）。
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Isolation
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隔离
Wherever possible processes or operations, which involve some risk(s) to health, should be completely enclosed, with the operator(s) outside the enclosure.
VENTILATION 通风
VENTILATION 通风
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VENTILATION
通风
The important features of ventilation systems are outlined, along with general principles associated with their design.
下文将介绍通风系统的重要特征，以及其设计基本原则。
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Types of Control
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控制类型
Local Exhaust Ventilation (LEV) is one of the most effective means available of preventing hazardous materials entering the workplace atmosphere. It draws
pollutants away from a process or operation that is likely to release a hazardous substance into the workplace. However, there are many cases where the LEV is
not effective and this may be as a result of poor design or lack of understanding of its proper use. LEV removes the contaminant at source.
局部排气通风（LEV）是避免有害物质进入工作场所的最有效方式之一。LEV能够吸取工序或操作（可能会在工作场所中排放有害物质）中的污染物。但是，LEV也不
是万能的，因设计不佳或使用不当，LEV就有可能无效。LEV可从污染源排除污染物。
Dilution Ventilation reduces the concentration of background contamination by the addition of fresh, uncontaminated air. However, there is little, if any, removal or
reduction of the contaminant at source.
稀释通风通过引入新鲜的、无污染的空气，稀释背景污染的浓度。但是，基本不会从污染源排除污染物。
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General Features of an LEV System
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常见LEV系统组成
The fundamental components that are common to all LEV systems are:
LEV系统的基本组成如下：
Inlet such as a booth, hood, slot or enclosure.
入口：如外罩、引擎罩、通风槽或密封罩。
Ductwork that may contain bends, junctions, changes of section and dampers, it may be circular or rectangular in cross section and be rigid or flexible.
管道系统：含有弯管、管节、管路截面和阀门，截面可以是圆形或矩形，可以是刚性管，也可以是软管。
An air-cleaning device such as a dust filter, wet scrubber or solvent recovery device.
空气净化装置：如防尘过滤器、湿式除尘器或溶剂回收装置。
A fan or other air-moving device.
风扇或其他空气调节装置。
Discharge ductwork to atmosphere or a room via a stack, diffuser, grille or just an open duct.
通过排出管、扩展器、进气格或开放式管道将空气排放到大气或排放室的排气管道。
A diagram of the components of a LEV system is shown below.
LEV系统的组成图如下所示：
Soucre: Adrian Hirst
资料来源：Adrian Hirst
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General Considerations
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一般注意事项
LEV can be simple systems that serve a single machine or be complex and serve an entire factory. For a LEV system to be effective, all of the component parts
must function correctly; a well designed and correctly positioned captor hood will be useless if the fan cannot provide the correct airflow. A LEV system removes air
from the workplace and therefore there must be a means of ensuring a sufficient supply of make-up air to compensate for this. In large LEV systems this may mean
that grilles or air vents have to be fitted to doors or walls and a supply fan may need to be installed. It should be remembered that the cost of heating air can be
substantial, therefore, poor design may lead to unnecessary energy costs and it may be worthwhile installing a heat recovery system.
LEV可以是一个单机器专用的简单系统，或整个工厂专用的复杂系统。为了确保LEV系统的有效性，所有系统组成均应正常运转；如风扇无法提供适用的气流，采集罩
即使设计精良，定位适当，也无效。LEV系统能够排除工作场所中的空气，故应具备空气补偿措施。在大型LEV系统中，应在门或墙壁上安装管路格栅或空气管道，还
需要安装进气风扇。应牢记：空气加热成本很高，如设计不当，可能导致能源成本的不必要浪费。有必要安装热回收系统。
It’s essential that any LEV system is designed for the process which it is intended to control. The diagram below shows the interdependent factors which lead to
effective control. It is important that the nature of the contaminant being controlled is fully understood. Gases released under ambient conditions will behave very
differently to dust particles which are released with a high velocity. This affects the design of the capture system as well as any cleaning system which is
GENERAL VENTILATION全面通风
LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION
局部排气通风
ASBESTOS石棉
ASBETSOS石棉
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ASBESTOS
石棉
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Background
背景
Asbestos is perhaps the most widely discussed hazardous substance. In 1898 the chief factory inspectors report in the UK spoke of “the evil effects of asbestos
dust” and detailed a microscopic examination of asbestos revealing “sharp, glass-like, jagged nature of the particles” and the “effects have been found to be
injurious”.
石棉也许最受关注的有害物质。1898年，英国首席工厂督察总监报告描述了 “石棉尘的有害影响”以及石棉在镜检中的状态“锐利、玻璃状、锯齿形”，而且该报告
表明，“已发现石棉对人体有害”。
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Electronmicrograph of asbestos fibres (anthophylite).
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石棉纤维的电子显微图片（直闪石）。
Source: Wikimedia commons – United States Geological Survey
资料来源：维基共享资源 - 美国地质调查局
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Types of Asbestos
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石棉的种类
The name asbestos refers to a group of naturally occurring, fibrous, crystalline silicates which are mined mainly in Russia, China, Canada and Southern
Africa. All types of asbestos occur as long fibrous crystals, which split longitudinally (i.e. along the length of the fibre to form progressively thinner fibres). The main
types of asbestos are shown below:
石棉是天然的、纤维状的硅酸盐类矿物质，主要集中在俄罗斯、中国、加拿大和南非。所有类型的石棉都是纤维状长晶体，纵向分割（即沿纤维长度侧形成逐渐变细的
纤维）。石棉的主要类型如下：
Source: Adrian Hirst
信息来源： Adrian Hirst
The two groups of asbestos fibres have different crystalline structures and correspondingly different shapes and properties. When viewed under a microscope,
Chrysotile (white asbestos) fibres appear to be slightly curly, whereas, Crocidolite (blue asbestos) fibres are straight and shorter. Amosite (brown asbestos) fibres
are similar to Crocidolite but more brittle. It should be noted that colour is not a reliable means of identifying the types of asbestos, especially when it is incorporated
into a product.
石棉纤维可以分为两种类型，具有不同的晶体结构和不同的形状和属性。在显微镜下观察时，温石棉（白石棉）纤维微卷，青石棉（蓝石棉）纤维短直。铁石棉（褐石
棉）纤维与青石棉相似，但较脆。请注意，颜色不是确定石棉类型的可靠方法，尤其是当石棉与产品混合时。
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Properties of Asbestos
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石棉的性质
The main properties, which have led to the extensive use of asbestos, include incombustibility, mechanical strength, chemical resistance, thermal insulation
and low cost. Various types of asbestos may exhibit these properties to different extents, which affects their usage.
石棉的主要属性包括不燃性、机械强度、耐化学性、保温、成本低，这是这些属性造就了石棉的广泛使用。各类石棉的属性在程度上稍有差异，导致不同石棉的用途也
不相同。
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Uses of Asbestos
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石棉的用途
The most common applications of asbestos likely to be found on industrial premises are given in below, together with the type and approximate content of
asbestos.
石棉最常用于工业场所，下文将详细介绍该种应用，以及涉及的石棉类型和大致信息。
Common Applications of Asbestos in Industrial Premises
工厂场所中石棉的常规应用
ProductType of AsbestosApproximateContent (%)Cement Materials e.g. corrugated sheets, water tanks, pipes, prefabricated building components.Chrysotile
(occasionally incorporating Crocidolite or Amosite)10 - 20Fire-resistant Insulating Board.Amosite (occasionally incorporating chrysotile or crocidolite15 - 40Thermal,
insulation, lagging, incl. pipe and vessel insulation.Amosite, chrysotile& crocidolite1 - 55Sprayed coatings e.g. applied to structural beams and ceilings as fire
protection/and/or acoustic and thermal insulationAmosite, chrysotile& crocidolite60 - 90Textiles e.g. heat resistant gloves, fire-blankets, fire-protective clothing &
insulation mattresses.Chrysotile (occasionally Crocidolite)85 - 100Jointings & packingse.g. gaskets.Chrysotile (occasionally Crocidolite)25 - 85Friction materials e.g.
BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS
生物危害
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BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS
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生物危害
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Introduction to Biological Hazards
生物危害简介
A fundamental difference between chemical and biological hazards is that biological agents, whether bacteria, viruses or moulds have the ability in the right
conditions to rapidly replicate themselves. This means that the focus on control is not only avoidance of contact with the agent but also on ensuring that conditions
favourable for growth of the organism are prevented.
化学和生物危害的根本区别在于：生物因素（细菌、病毒或霉菌）在合适的条件下有能力迅速复制。也就是说，控制不仅可以避免与生物因素的接触，还能够抑制微生
物生长的有利条件。
The three main categories of biological agents that we will be covering examples of, are bacteria, viruses and fungi.
生物危害可分为三大类：细菌、病毒或霉菌，下文我们将举例说明。
Bacteria - single celled micro organisms that live in soil, water and air. There are many thousands of different types of bacteria – many are harmless, or even
beneficial, but some bacteria are pathogenic - that is they cause disease. Examples of diseases caused by bacteria include Legionnaires disease, various types of
food poisoning (e.g. salmonella) and anthrax. Antibiotics are used to treat bacterial infections.
细菌——单细胞微生物，生活在土壤、水和空气中。 细菌的类型多种多样——但大多数细菌是无害的，甚至有些还是有益细菌，但是有一些细菌是致病菌——即会导
致生病的细菌。由细菌引起疾病的典型事例是退伍军人症，各种食物中毒如沙门氏菌和炭疽。抗生素是用来治疗由细菌引起的感染。
Viruses – tiny parasitic organisms that can only reproduce within living cells. They consist of nucleic acids (RNA or DNA) with a protein coat. Largest known virus
approx 1000 x smaller than the average bacteria. Viruses cause many diseases including the common cold, influenza, measles, rabies, hepatitis and AIDS.
Antibiotics are ineffective against viruses but many viral diseases are controlled by vaccines.
病毒——微小的寄生生物，只能在活细胞体内繁殖。病毒由核酸（RNA或DNA）和蛋白质外壳组成。最大的病毒可能比平均大小的细菌小1000×。病毒会引起许多疾
病，包括普通感冒、流行性感冒、麻疹、狂犬病、乙型肝炎和艾滋病。抗生素对病毒无效，许多病毒性疾病采用疫苗来控制。
Fungi – simple plants lacking chlorophyll and normal plant structures (eg leaves, stems etc). Fungi include yeasts, moulds, mildews and mushrooms.
真菌——简单的植物，没有叶绿素和植物正常结构（如叶，茎等）。 真菌包括酵母菌、霉菌、和蘑菇。
The response of each individual to exposure to micro-organisms depends on his or her state of immunity, i.e. the power of the individual to resist disease. There are
many factors involved in immunity including:
个人对微生物的反应取决于其免疫能力，即个人的抗病能力。免疫能力涉及许多因素：
whether the individual has already experienced a particular illness
个人是否已患过相关疾病；
immunisation levels
免疫程度
individual resistance
个人抵抗力
Fatigue
身体疲劳状态
Age
年龄
To simplify how risks from different organisms should be managed they are categorised into different risk groups. Control measures required should be matched to
the risk group:
为了简化不同生物体所致风险的管理，我们将其分为不同等级。所需的控制措施应与控制等级相互匹配：
Risk Group 1 - (low individual and community risk). An organism that is unlikely to cause human or animal disease.
危害等级1—— （低个体危害，低群体危害） ：不会导致人类和动物生病的有机体。
Risk Group 2 - (moderate individual risk, limited community risk). A pathogen that may cause human or animal disease and which might be a hazard to laboratory
workers, but is unlikely to spread to the community, livestock or the environment. Laboratory exposures may cause serious infection, but effective treatment and
preventive measures are available and the risk of spread is limited.