Transcript Document

Staphylococci
Coagulase-negative staphylococcus; frequently involved
in nosocomial and opportunistic infections
• S. epidermidis – lives on skin and mucous membranes;
endocarditis, bacteremia, UTI
• S. hominis – lives around apocrine sweat glands
• S. capitis – live on scalp, face, external ear
• All 3 may cause wound infections by penetrating
through broken skin
• S. saprophyticus – infrequently lives on skin, intestine,
vagina; UTI
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General Characteristics of
the Staphylococci
• Common inhabitant of the skin and mucous
membranes
• Spherical cells arranged in irregular clusters
• Gram-positive
• Lack spores and flagella
• May have capsules
• 31 species
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S. aureus morphology
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Staphylococcus aureus
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Grows in large, round, opaque colonies
Optimum temperature of 37oC
Facultative anaerobe
Withstands high salt, extremes in pH, and
high temperatures
• Produces many virulence factors
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Blood agar plate, S. aureus
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Virulence factors of S. aureus
Enzymes:
• Coagulase – coagulates plasma and blood;
produced by 97% of human isolates; diagnostic
• Hyaluronidase – digests connective tissue
• Staphylokinase – digests blood clots
• DNase – digests DNA
• Lipases – digest oils; enhances colonization on
skin
• Penicillinase – inactivates penicillin
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Virulence factors of S. aureus
Toxins:
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Hemolysins (α, β, γ, δ) – lyse red blood cells
Leukocidin – lyses neutrophils and macrophages
Enterotoxin – induce gastrointestinal distress
Exfoliative toxin – separates the epidermis from the
dermis
• Toxic shock syndrome toxin (TSST) – induces
fever, vomiting, shock, systemic organ damage
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Epidemiology and Pathogenesis
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Present in most environments frequented by humans
Readily isolated from fomites
Carriage rate for healthy adults is 20-60%
Carriage is mostly in anterior nares, skin,
nasopharynx, intestine
• Predisposition to infection include: poor hygiene and
nutrition, tissue injury, preexisting primary infection,
diabetes, immunodeficiency
• Increase in community acquired methicillin resistance
- MRSA
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Staphylococcal Disease
Range from localized to systemic
• Localized cutaneous infections – invade skin through
wounds, follicles, or glands
– Folliculitis – superficial inflammation of hair follicle; usually
resolved with no complications but can progress
– Furuncle – boil; inflammation of hair follicle or sebaceous
gland progresses into abscess or pustule
– Carbuncle – larger and deeper lesion created by aggregation
and interconnection of a cluster of furuncles
– Impetigo – bubble-like swellings that can break and peel
away; most common in newborns
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Cutaneous lesions of S. aureus
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Staphylococcal Disease
• Systemic infections
– Osteomyelitis – infection is established in the
metaphysis; abscess forms
– Bacteremia – primary origin is bacteria from
another infected site or medical devices;
endocarditis possible
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Staphylococcal osteomyelitis in a long bone
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Staphylococcal Disease
• Toxigenic disease
– Food intoxication – ingestion of heat stable
enterotoxins; gastrointestinal distress
– Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome –
toxin induces bright red flush, blisters, then
desquamation of the epidermis
– Toxic shock syndrome – toxemia leading to
shock and organ failure
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Effects of
staphylococcal
toxins on skin
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Toxic Shock Syndrome Toxin
• Superantigen
• Non-specific
binding of toxin to
receptors triggers
excessive immune
response
TSS Symptoms
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8-12 h post infection
Fever
Susceptibility to Endotoxins
Hypotension
Diarrhea
Multiple Organ System Failure
Erythroderma (rash)
TSS Treatment
• Clean any obvious wounds and remove any
foreign bodies
• Prescription of appropriate antibiotics to eliminate
bacteria
• Monitor and manage all other symptoms, e.g.
administer IV fluids
• For severe cases, administer methylprednisone, a
corticosteriod inhibitor of TNF-a synthesis
Identification of Staphylococcus in
Samples
• Frequently isolated from pus, tissue exudates,
sputum, urine, and blood
• Cultivation, catalase, biochemical testing,
coagulase
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Catalase test
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Test system to identify Staphylococcus
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Clinical Concerns and Treatment
• 95% have penicillinase and are resistant to
penicillin and ampicillin
• MRSA – methicillin-resistant S. aureus –
carry multiple resistance
– Some strains have resistance to all major drug
groups except vancomycin
• Abscesses have to be surgically perforated
• Systemic infections require intensive
lengthy therapy
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Prevention of Staphylococcal Infections
• Universal precautions by healthcare providers
to prevent nosocomial infections
• Hygiene and cleansing
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General Characteristics of Streptococci
• Gram-positive spherical/ovoid cocci arranged in long
chains; commonly in pairs
• Non-spore-forming, nonmotile
• Can form capsules and slime layers
• Facultative anaerobes
• Do not form catalase, but have a peroxidase system
• Most parasitic forms are fastidious and require
enriched media
• Small, nonpigmented colonies
• Sensitive to drying, heat, and disinfectants
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Freshly isolated Streptococcus
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Streptococci
• Lancefield classification system based on
cell wall Ag – 17 groups (A, B, C,….)
• Another classification system is based on
hemolysis reactions
b-hemolysis – A, B, C, G and some D
strains
a – hemolysis – S. pneumoniae and others
collectively called viridans
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Hemolysis patterns on blood agar
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Human Streptococcal Pathogens
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S. pyogenes
S. agalactiae
Viridans streptococci
S. pneumoniae
Enterococcus faecalis
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b-hemolytic S. pyogenes
• Most serious streptococcal pathogen
• Strict parasite
• Inhabits throat, nasopharynx, occasionally
skin
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Virulence Factors of b-Hemolytic
S. Pyogenes
Produces surface antigens:
– C-carbohydrates – protect against lysozyme
– Fimbriae – adherence
– M-protein – contributes to resistance to
phagocytosis
– Hyaluronic acid capsule – provokes no
immune response
– C5a protease hinders complement and
neutrophil response
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View of group A Streptococcus
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Virulence Factors of b-Hemolytic
S. Pyogenes
Extracellular toxins:
Streptolysins – hemolysins; streptolysin O
(SLO) and streptolysin S (SLS) – both cause
cell and tissue injury
Erythrogenic toxin (pyrogenic) – induces fever
and typical red rash
Superantigens – strong monocyte and
lymphocyte stimulants; cause the release of
tissue necrotic factor
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Virulence Factors of b-Hemolytic
S. Pyogenes
Extracellular enzymes
Streptokinase – digests fibrin clots
Hyaluronidase – breaks down connective tissue
DNase – hydrolyzes DNA
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Epidemiology and Pathogenesis
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Humans only reservoir
Inapparent carriers
Transmission – contact, droplets, food, fomites
Portal of entry generally skin or pharynx
Children predominant group affected for
cutaneous and throat infections
• Systemic infections and progressive sequelae
possible if untreated
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Scope of Clinical Disease
Skin infections
• Impetigo (pyoderma) – superficial lesions that break
and form highly contagious crust; often occurs in
epidemics in school children; also associated with
insect bites, poor hygiene, and crowded living
conditions
• Erysipelas – pathogen enters through a break in the
skin and eventually spreads to the dermis and
subcutaneous tissues; can remain superficial or become
systemic
Throat infections
• Streptococcal pharyngitis – strep throat
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Streptococcal skin infections
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Pharyngitis and tonsillitis
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Scope of Clinical Disease
Systemic infections
• Scarlet fever – strain of S. pyogenes
carrying a prophage that codes for
erythrogenic toxin; can lead to sequelae
• Septicemia
• Pneumonia
• Streptococcal toxic shock syndrome
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Long-Term Complications of Group
A Infections
• Rheumatic fever – follows overt or subclinical
pharyngitis in children; carditis with extensive
valve damage possible, arthritis, chorea, fever
• Acute glomerulonephritis – nephritis,
increased blood pressure, occasionally heart
failure; can become chronic leading to kidney
failure
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Group B: Streptococcus Agalactiae
• Regularly resides in human vagina, pharynx,
and large intestine
• Can be transferred to infant during delivery
and cause severe infection
– Most prevalent cause of neonatal pneumonia,
sepsis, and meningitis
– Pregnant women should be screened and treated
• Wound and skin infections and endocarditis in
debilitated people
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Group D Enterococci and Groups C and
G Streptococci
• Group D:
– Enterococcus faecalis, E. faecium, E. durans
– Normal colonists of human large intestine
– Cause opportunistic urinary, wound, and skin
infections, particularly in debilitated persons
• Groups C and G:
– Common animal flora, frequently isolated from
upper respiratory; pharyngitis, glomerulonephritis,
bacteremia
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Identification
• Cultivation and diagnosis ensure proper
treatment to prevent possible complications
• Rapid diagnostic tests based on monoclonal
antibodies that react with C-carbohydrates
• Culture using bacitracin disc test, CAMP test,
Esculin hydrolysis
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Streptococcal tests
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b-hemolytic streptococci
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Treatment and Prevention
• Groups A and B are treated with penicillin
• Long-term penicillin prophylaxis for people
with a history of rheumatic fever or
recurrent strep throat
• Enterococcal treatment usually requires
combined therapy
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a-Hemolytic Streptococci:
Viridans Group
• Large complex group
– Streptococcus mutans, S. oralis, S. salivarus,
S. sanguis, S. milleri, S. mitis
• Most numerous and widespread residents of the
gums and teeth, oral cavity, and also found in
nasopharynx, genital tract, skin
• Not very invasive; dental or surgical procedures
facilitate entrance
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Viridans Group
• Bacteremia, meningitis, abdominal infection,
tooth abscesses
• Most serious infection – subacute endocarditis
– Blood-borne bacteria settle and grow on heart
lining or valves
• Persons with preexisting heart disease are at high
risk
• Colonization of heart by forming biofilms
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Viridans Group
• S. mutans produce slime layers that adhere
to teeth, basis for plaque
• Involved in dental caries
• Persons with preexisting heart conditions
should receive prophylactic antibiotics
before surgery or dental procedures
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Streptococcus Pneumoniae: The
Pneumococcus
• Causes 60-70% of all bacterial pneumonias
• Small, lancet-shaped cells arranged in pairs
and short chains
• Culture requires blood or chocolate agar
• Growth improved by 5-10% CO2
• Lack catalase and peroxidases – cultures die in
O2
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Two effects of streptococcal colonization
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Diagnosing Streptococcus pneumoniae
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S. Pneumoniae
• All pathogenic strains form large capsules –
major virulence factor
• Specific soluble substance (SSS) varies among
types
• 90 different capsular types have been identified
• Causes pneumonia and otitis media
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Epidemiology and Pathology
• 5-50% of all people carry it as normal flora in the
nasopharynx; infections are usually endogenous
• Very delicate, does not survive long outside of its
habitat
• Young children, elderly, immune compromised, those
with other lung diseases or viral infections, persons
living in close quarters are predisposed to pneumonia
• Pneumonia occurs when cells are aspirated into the
lungs of susceptible individuals
• Pneumococci multiply and induce an overwhelming
inflammatory response
• Gains access to middle ear by way of eustachian tube
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The course of bacterial pneumonia
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View of ear anatomy indicating route of
infection
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Cultivation and Diagnosis
• Gram stain of specimen – presumptive
identification
• Quellung test or capsular swelling reaction
• α-hemolytic; optochin sensitivity, bile
solubility, inulin fermentation
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Treatment and Prevention
• Traditionally treated with penicillin G or V
• Increased drug resistance
• Two vaccines available for high risk
individuals:
– Capsular antigen vaccine for older adults and
other high risk individuals – effective 5 years
– Conjugate vaccine for children 2 to 23 months
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Family Neisseriaceae
• Gram-negative cocci
• Residents of mucous membranes of warmblooded animals
• Genera include Neisseria, Branhamella,
Moraxella
• 2 primary human pathogens:
– Neisseria gonorrhoeae
– Neisseria meningitidis
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Neisseria
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Genus Neisseria
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Gram-negative, bean-shaped, diplococci
None develop flagella or spores
Capsules on pathogens
Pili
Strict parasites, do not survive long outside of the host
Aerobic or microaerophilic
Oxidative metabolism
Produce catalase and cytochrome oxidase
Pathogenic species require enriched complex media
and CO2
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Neisseria Gonorrhoeae:
The Gonococcus
• Causes gonorrhea, an STD
• Virulence factors:
– Fimbriae, other surface molecules for
attachment; slows phagocytosis
– IgA protease – cleaves secretory IgA
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Epidemiology and Pathology
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Strictly a human infection
In top 5 STDs
Infectious dose 100-1,000
Does not survive more than 1-2 hours on
fomites
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Comparative incidence of reportable
infectious STDs
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Gonorrhea
Infection is asymptomatic in 10% of males and 50%
of females
• Males – urethritis, yellowish discharge, scarring,
and infertility
• Females – vaginitis, urethritis, salpingitis (PID)
mixed anaerobic abdominal infection, common
cause of sterility and ectopic tubal pregnancies
• Extragenital infections – anal, pharygeal,
conjunctivitis, septicemia, arthritis
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Gonorrheal damage to the male reproductive tract
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Ascending gonorrhea in women
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Gonorrhea in Newborns
• Infected as they pass through birth canal
• Eye inflammation, blindness
• Prevented by prophylaxis immediately after
birth
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Diagnosis and Control
• Gram stain – Gram-negative intracellular (neutrophils)
diplococci from urethral, vaginal, cervical, or eye
exudate – presumptive identification
• 20-30% of new cases are penicillinase-producing
PPNG or tetracycline resistant TRNG
• Combined therapies indicated
• Recurrent infections can occur
• Reportable infectious disease
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Gram stain of urethral pus
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Neisseria Meningitidis: The
Meningococcus
Virulence factors:
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Capsule
Adhesive fimbriae
IgA protease
Endotoxin
• 12 strains; serotypes A, B, C cause most
cases
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Epidemiology and Pathogenesis
• Prevalent cause of meningitis; sporadic or epidemic
• Human reservoir – nasopharynx; 3-30% of adult
population; higher in institutional settings
• High risk individuals are those living in close
quarters, children 6 months-3 years, children and
young adults 10-20 years
• Disease begins when bacteria enter bloodstream,
cross the blood-brain barrier, permeate the meninges,
and grow in the cerebrospinal fluid
• Very rapid onset; neurological symptoms; endotoxin
causes hemorrhage and shock; can be fatal
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Dissemination of the meningococcus from a
nasopharyngeal infection
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One clinical sign of meningococcemia
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Clinical Diagnosis
• Gram stain CSF, blood, or nasopharyngeal
sample
• Culture for differentiation
• Rapid tests for capsular polysaccharide
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Treatment and Prevention
• Treated with IV penicillin G, cephalosporin
• Prophylactic treatment of family members,
medical personnel, or children in close contact
with patient
• Primary vaccine contains specific purified
capsular antigens
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Other Gram-Negative Cocci and
Coccobacilli
• Genus Branhamella
– Branhamella catarrhalis – found in nasopharynx:
significant opportunist in cancer, diabetes, alcoholism
• Genus Moraxella
– Bacilli – found on mucous membranes
• Genus Acinetobacter
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