Transcript Document

Table of Contents
History of Microbiology
Before 1600 1600-1699 1700-1749 1750-1799 1800-1849
1850-1859 1860-1869 1870-1879 1880-1889 1890-1899
1900-1909 1910-1919 1920-1929 1930-1939 1940-1949
1950-1959 1960-1969 1970-1979 1980-1989 1990-1999
2000-2009
Pre-1600
Before 1600
1215 King John of England signs
the Magna Carta (the first set of
written, democratic laws)
1096 Holy Roman Empire
begins the Crusades
1120 First
restaurant (China)
Ancient
Egyptians
Ancient Roman Empire

B.C.
Ancient Egyptians
develop methods of
embalming
1596 First
flush toilet
1429 Joan of Arc leads the
French army against British
invaders
A.D.

1000
600 A.D. Mayans make
fermented beverage from
cacao (chocolate)
Ancient Romans develop
ideas about contagious
particles. They also perform
first recorded acts of
biological warfare--they
dumped rotting corpses into
the water supplies of their
4300 B.C. Babylonian enemies.
clay tablets have beer
recipes
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1348 Black Death
Kills 1/3 of
European
population
1590 Janssen
Develops
compound
microscope
1600
1600
1600-1699
1603 Shakespeare
publishes Hamlet
1620 The Mayflower
lands at Plymouth Rock
1692 Salem Witch Trials
1666 Newton
describes The
Law of Gravity
1610 Galileo says
the Earth revolves
around the Sun
1600
1610
1620
1630
1640
1650
1660
1670
1680
1690
1665 Robert Hooke views
cork through a microscope-coins the term “cell.”
1668 Francesco Redi performs the first documented
controlled scientific experiment. Covers meat with
cheese cloth, and leaves other pieces of meet
uncovered. Uncovered meat, exposed to flies,
develops maggots. Covered meat does not develop
maggots. Redi concludes that adult flies are
necessary for the production of maggots. This is the
first major blow to the theory of spontaneous
generation.
1674 Anton von Leeuwenhoek
becomes first person to view living
microorganisms. This marks the
beginning of Microbiology.
1700
1700
1705 Edmund Halley uses
Newtonian laws of motion to
predict the return of the comet
that bears his name.
1700-1749
1718 Blackbeard the
Pirate is killed.
1712 An early steam engine is
installed at an English coal
mine. This marks the
beginning of the First Industrial
Revolution.
1700
1710
1726 Bartolomeo Cristofori
develops the piano.
1726 Jonathon Swift
publishes Gulliver’s Travels
1732 Benjamin Franklin
begins publication of Poor
Richards Almanac
1720
1730
1740
1735 Linnaeus develops a taxonomy
and a naming system (binomial
nomenclature) for organisms.
1745 John Needham shows that boiled
broth that cools down overnight
becomes richly contaminated with
microorganisms. He forcefully argues
the microbes must be borne from the
broth. He publishes a formal
presentation of the Theory of
Spontaneous Generation
1750
1750
1750-1799
1756 Wolfgang Amadeus
Mozart is born
1789 Mutiny on
the HMS Bounty
1776 Declaration of
Independence is signed
1789 French Revolution
1752 Benjamin Franklin
flies a kite in a storm to
investigate the electrical
nature of lightning.
1750
1760
1770 Ludwig von
Beethoven is born
1770
1767 Lazzaro Spallanzani performs
experiments with boiled and unboiled
gravy. He shows that boiled gravy will
only spoil if exposed to air. He concludes
that spontaneous generation cannot be
correct.
1787 U.S. Constitution
is signed into law
1780
1790
1800
1798 Edward Jenner performs the first
vaccinations against smallpox. He collects
the pus from cowpox blisters on the hands
of milkmaids. He contaminates a lance
with this pus and then cuts the skin of
children.
1800
1800-1849
1800 Johnny Appleseed arrives in the
Ohio River Valley
1800 Washington D.C. is established
as the capital of the U.S.A.
1818 Mary Shelley
publishes Frankenstein
1812 Development of
the first canned foods
1800
1810
1848 Marx and Engels
publish the Communist
Manifesto
1844 Samuel Morse develops
the first telegraph line.
1826 Photography is invented
1820
1830
1848 Women’s
suffrage movement
begins in England
1840
1829 England installs
first municipal water
filtration system
1835 Agostino Bassi proves that a
fungus is the cause of silkworm
disease.
1840 Ignaz Semmelweis puts
forth the revolutionary idea that
physicians should wash their
hands when assisting in
childbirth.
1850
1850
1850-1859
1851 The first YMCA
opens in Boston
1852 Otis
invents the
elevator
1850
1852
1857 U.S. Suprreme Court announces the
Dred Scott decision: free (non-slave)
states do not have the authority to deprive
citizens of their property (slaves)
1859 Charles Darwin
publishes the Origin of Species
1857 City of Vancouver,
Washington is established
1854
1856
1858
1854 John Snow identifies
contaminated water as the
cause of a cholera epidemic in
England
1857 Louis Pasteur determines that
yeast cause fermentation of wine and
develops the process of
pasteurization that saves the French
wine industry. This marks the
beginning of the Golden Age of
Microbiology--a period of explosive
growth of knowledge of microbes
(1857-1914).
1858 Rudolf Virchow develops
the formal theory that life arises
only from pre-existing life (later
to be called “biogenesis”.)
1860
1860
1860-1869
1865 President Abraham
Lincoln is assassinated
1866 Gregor Mendel publishes
a study on the inheritance of
characteristics in pea plants
1861 Civil War begins
1869 The
Transcontinental Railroad
connects East and West
U.S.A
1865 End of the
Civil War
1860
1862
1864
1866
1861 Louis Pasteur, studying
fermentation by yeast, coins the
terms aerobic and anaerobic.
1861 Louis Pasteur provides the final
disproof of the theory of spontaneous
generation. He maintains boiled broth
in a swan-necked flask, open to the air,
for many days without contamination.
1869 Mendeleey develops
the Periodic Table of
Elements
1866 Given the discovery of microscopic
organisms, Ernst Haeckel proposes a third
Kingdom of Life: The Protista.
1868
1870
1867 Joseph Lister uses phenol
(carbolic acid) to treat surgical
wounds. This reduced infection
from surgery dramatically and
served as proof that surgical
infections are caused by
microorganisms.
1870
1870-1879
1879 Woolworth
stores open
1871 Mrs.O’Leary’s cow
knocks over a lantern and
starts the Great Chicago Fire.
1876 Thomas Edison invents
the incandescent light bulb
1872 Yellowstone becomes the
world’s first National Park.
1876 Alexander Graham
Bell invents the telephone
1872 Jules Verne publishes
Around the World in Eighty
Days
1870
1872
1874
1872 Ferdinand Cohn
describes the roles of bacteria in
the cycling of elements in
nature.
1870 Thomas Huxley, one of the most
prominent biologists of the time, coins the terms
“biogenesis” (life from pre-existing life) and
“abiogenesis” (life from nonliving materials).
He provides powerful support for Pasteur’s
claim that spontaneous generation (abiogenesis)
had been disproved.
1876
1878
1880
1879 Neisser identifies the causative agent
of gonorrhea (Neisseria gonorrhoeae).
This may be the first case where a microbe
is implicated as the cause of a chronic
disease.
1876 Robert Koch, studying the disease, anthrax,
validates the Germ Theory of Disease--the idea that
diseases are caused by infectious agents (not by other
forces such as evil spirits). This is also the first use of
the rigorous steps in pathogen identification known as
Koch’s Postulates.
1880
1880-1889
1882 Bank robber Jesse
James is shot and killed
1881 Clara Barton founds
the American Red Cross
1880
1882
1880 Pasteur
develops a vaccine for
chicken cholera. This
is the first attenuated
vaccine.
1881 Koch develops the
concept of achieving pure
cultures using solid media.
1887 Sir Arthur Conan Doyle
publishes A study in Scarlet (the
first Sherlock Holmes book)
1889 Washington becomes the
42nd state in the Union
1885 Sir Francis Galton proves
the individuality of fingerprints
1884
1886
1888
1885 Pasteur develops a
vaccine for rabies.
1883 Koch identifies Vibrio cholerae
as the causative agent of cholera.
1887 Petri develops the
petri plate for use with
soild culture media
1884 Elie Metchnikoff describes
phagocytosis (ingestion of solid
materials by cells)
1884 Escherich identifies
Escherichia coli
1882 Koch identifies
1884 Hans Christian Gram
Mycobacterium tuberculosis as
develops the Gram Stain.
the causative agent of
1882 The Hess’ working
tuberculosis.
1884 Koch formalizes Koch’s Postulatesin Koch’s lab, develops
-the set of steps required to identify the
agar as a solid medium.
causative agent of a disease.
1890
1890
1890-1899
1895 Roentgen discovers
X-rays
1896 Chop suey is invented in
New York City
1897 Bram Stoker
publishes Dracula
1890
1892
1894
1896
1898
1900
1897 Buchner discovers that
1892 Welch and Nuttall identify fermentation can be accomplished
Clostridium perfringens as the with a cell-free yeast extract. This
causative agent of gangrene. launches the field of enzymology.
1891 Paul Ehrlich proposes
that antibodies are
responsible for immunity.
1892 Ivanowski launches the field of virology when
he discovers the existence of the filterability of an
1899 Ross describes the
“invisible” (not seen through a microscope)
life cycle of the malaria
pathogenic agent.
1890 Sergei Winogradsky performs the
parasite.
definitive work on the microorganisms
responsible for nitrification in nature.
1899 The Society of American Bacteriologists
1890 von Behring and Kitasato
(later renamed the American Society of
develop a process for producing
Microbiologists) is organized. This is the
diphtheria antitoxin. This is the first
oldest scientific society in America.
directed approach to therapy of
infectious disease.
1900
1900-1909
1900 Sigmund Freud publishes
The Interpretation of Dreams
1906 Kellogg’s Corn Flakes is introduced
1903 Orville and Wilbur
Wright fly the first airplane
1901 Marconi develops
the wireless radio
1900
1902
1907 Leo Baekeland
develops plastic
1905 Albert Einstein publishes the
Theory of Relativity (E = mc2)
1904
1906
1906 Sohngen shows
that bacteria can use
methane as an energy
and carbon source.
1908 Henry Ford develops the
automobile assembly line.
1908
1910
1907 Smith and
Townsend discover that
the bacterium,
Agrobacterium, is
responsible for the plant
1905 Schaudinn and tumor disease called
1901 Wildiers discovers that a water-soluble
Hoffman identify
crown gall.
extract of yeast is needed for the growth of yeast.
Treponema pallidum as
This is the first evidence of an essential growth
the causative agent of
1909 Ricketts shows that Rocky
factor (later found to be a B vitamin). This
syphilis.
Mountain spotted fever is caused
discovery launches the filed of vitamin research.
by Rickettsia, an organisms
1905 Ishiwata discovers that
1900 Walter Reed and colleagues
intermediate in size between
silkworm disease is caused by
show that a virus, transmitted by
viruses and bacteria. Ricketts later
the bacterium Bacillus
mosquitoes, causes Yellow Fever.
dies of typhus, another rickettsial
thuringiensis (now an
This is the first human disease for
disease.
important insecticide).
which a virus is implicated.
1904 Koning suggests that fungi
play important roles in the
decomposition of organic matter and
the formation of humus (topsoil).
1910
1910-1919
1918 World War I
ends
1912 The Titanic sinks on its
maiden voyage
1914 World War I
begins
1914 The Panama Canal is
completed. It connects the
Pacific and Atlantic Oceans
1910
1912
1914
1912 Paul Ehrlich announces the
discovery of an effective cure
(Salvarsan) for syphilis. This is the
first specific chemotherapeutic
agent.
1911 Rous discovers that a virus causes cancer
in chickens. This is the first evidence that an
infectious agent can cause animal cancer.
1910 Nicolle shows that typhus fever is transmitted
from person to person by body lice. This
information is used to reduce incideence of typhus
in both world wars.
1919 The 18th
Amendment to the
Constitution begins the
Prohibition of alcoholic
beverages.
1917 The Russian Revolution
ends the reign of Czars and
begins the Communist regime.
1916
1918
1915 McCrady develops the
fecal coliform test as a
method for bacteriological
analysis of water quality.
1920
1919 Blood agar is
used for the first time.
Hemolytic ability is
used to separate three
types of Streptococcus
species.
1918 Worldwide influenza epidemic kills
more than 20 million people.
1920
1920-1929
1920 The 19th Amendment to the Constitution
guarantees women the right to vote.
1927 Charles Lindbergh becomes the first
person to fly solo across the Atlantic Ocean.
1925 The Scopes Monkey Trial focuses
public attention on the teaching of evolution
in public schools.
1920
1922
1924
1928 Mickey Mouse is born
1928 The first
television broadcast
1929 The stock market
crashes initiating the
Great Depression
1926
1928
1930
1928 Frederick Griffith discovers Transformation in
bacteria. This is the founding event in the field of
Molecular Genetics. His discovery leads to the eventual
understanding that DNA is the genetic material.
1923 D.H. Bergey publishes the first
definitive manual on the
characterization and classification of
bacteria.
1929 Alexander Fleming discovers the first antibiotic, penicillin.
Fleming makes this discovery by accident. He is searching for
antimicrobial chemicals and uses Staphylococcus cultures to test these
chemicals. He leaves some of these bacterial cultures on the lab bench
when he goes on vacation. Upon returning, he sees that some of his
cultures are contaminated with a fungus called Penicillium. He
notices that there are no bacteria growing near Penicillium.
1930
1930-1939
1931 The Empire State
Building opens
1933 The 21st Amendment to the
Constitution ends Prohibition
1939 The movies, Gone with the Wind
and The Wizard of Oz are released
1933 Adolf Hitler ascends to
1937 The Hindenburg explodes
power in the Nazi Party in
over New Jersey
1935 Social Security
Germany
is established
1930
1932
1934
1934 The electron
microscope is invented.
1931 van Niel shows that some photosynthetic
bacteria use reduced compounds, for example
H2S, as a source of electrons. He posits that
plants use H2O as an electron source. He also
begins the first General Microbiology course.
1936
1938
1940
1938 Theiler produces a
successful vaccine against yellow
fever.
1935 Domagk discovers the
antimetabolic antibiotic, Prontosil,
as a treatment against
Streptococcus.
1940
1940-1949
1941 Pearl Harbor is bombed drawing
the Unitedd States into World War II
1942 Japanese-Americans are
relocated to internment camps.
1945 President Franklin
D. Roosevelt dies
1944 D-Day: the invasion of
Normandy by Allied forces.
1940
1942
1945 U.S.A. drops atomic
bombs on Hiroshima and
Nagasaki ending World War II
1944
1942 The term “antibiotic”
comes into existence.
1947 Jackie Robinson becomes the first
black player in Major League Baseball.
1946
1948
1950
1947 Selman Waksman publishes a
comprehensive definition of the word
antibiotic: “a chemical substance produced
by microbes that inhibits the growth of and
even destroys other microbes.”
1941 Beadle and Tatum publish studies on
the relationship between genes and enzymes.
This leads to the understanding that genes
encode enzymes (more generally, proteins).
1940 Chain and Abraham describe a
substance, produced by E. coli, that inactivates
1944 Avery, MacLeod, and
penicillin. This is the first evidence that
McCarty
show that Griffith’s
antibiotic-resistant bacteria can develop.
(1928) transforming factor is
1940 Florey and Chain
DNA. This discovery causes
produce an extract of penicillin.
most biologists to accept that
Along with Fleming, they win
DNA is the genetic material.
the 1945 Nobel Prize in
Medicine and Physiology.
1946 Lederberg and Tatum show
that bacteria can reproduce
sexually (conjugation). Thus,
bacteria can exchange genes.
1950
1950 Senator Joseph McCarthy begins
an anti-communist campaign that ruins
the lives and careers of dozens of
American citizens.
1950-1959
1955 The first
McDonalds opens
1950 Korean War begins
1954 Racial segregation in schools is
declared unconstitutional.
1959 Alaska and Hawaii become the
49th and 50th States.
1955 Rosa Parks refuses to give up her bus
seat to a white man. This is a defining
moment in the Civil Rights Movement.
1959 Fidel Castro rises to
power in Cuba.
1950
1952
1952 Lederberg and Lederberg
develop the method of replica
plating.
1954
1956
1958
1960
1953 Jonas Salk begins preliminary
testing of a polio vaccine.
1953 James Watson and Francis Crick develop the
three-dimensional model of DNA structure. This
molecular structure immediately causes biologists to
understand that DNA is the genetic material. The
publication of these results ignites an explosion in
growth of knowledge and application of genetic
principles.
1959 Finland, Jones, and
Barnes comment on the
potential for antibiotic
resistance.
1958 Matthew Meselson and
Frank Stahl show the semiconservative nature of DNA
replication.
1960
1960-1969
1961 Russian cosmonaut, Yuri
Gagarin, becomes the first
human in space.
1965 The Beatles hold the Top Five
spots on the rock and roll top forty.
1962 Rachel Carson
publishes Silent Spring
1968 Dr. Martin Luther King,
Jr. is assassinated
1963 President John F.
Kennedy is assassinated
1960
1962
1961 Nirenberg and Matthaei
synthesizea poly-U RNA. They
find this RNA directs the
synthesis of a protein containing
only phenylalanine. They
conclude that UUU encodes
phenylalanine. This is the start
of the efforts to decipher the
genetic code.
1961 Francois Jacob and Jacques
Monod develop the lac operon model.
This is the first determination of a
mechanism by which an environmental
cue turns on/off a gene.
1964
1969 Neil Armstrong becomes
the first human to walk on the
moon.
1966
1968
1970
1965 Linus Pauling suggests that
DNA can be used to understand
evolutionary relationships and to
identify microorganisms.
1964 Epstein, Achong, and
Barr show that a virus (EBV)
can cause cancer in humans.
1968 Prokaryotae, proposed
by Murray, is accepted as
fourth Kingdom.
1969 Robert Whittaker
proposes the five-kingdom
system with the addition of
the Kingdom Fungi.
1970
1970-1979
1970 Four students are killed during an antiwar protest at Kent State University.
1973 U.S. troop evacuation of
Vietnam ends in the fall of Saigon
1971 The 21st Amendment to the
Constitution lowers the voting age to
18 years old.
1970
1972
1976 The United States
celebrates its bicentennial.
1976 The Pet Rock
1978 Jessica Louise Brown,
the world’s first test tube
baby is born.
1974 Richard Nixon resigns
the Presidency in the wake of
the Watergate Scandal.
1974
1977 Star Wars
is released.
1976
1975 The Asilomar Conference
gathers the top geneticists to
discuss the ethics of the
developing technologies of
genetic engineering.
1973 Berg, Boyer, and Cohen
produce the first geneticallyengineered organisms.
1971 Nathans, Smith, and Arber
discover restriction enzymes. This
discovery sets off the age of genetic
engineering.
1979 Professor
Kibota obtains his
drivers license.
1977 Bishop and Varmus
discover retroviral oncogenes
(cancer-causing genes)
1977 Sanger develops a method
for determining the nucleotide
sequence of DNA
1978
1980
1979 Smalllpox is
declared officially
eliminated.
1978 Using genetic analysis of
ribosomal RNAs, Woese discovers
unusual procaryotes called Archaea (or
Archaeobacteria). He finds these
organisms to be so genetically distinct
(compared to other procaryotes and to
the eucaryotes) that he suggests a new
taxonomic grouping above Kingdom,
The Domain.
1980
1980-1989
1980 Mount Saint Helens erupts.
1984 Geraldine Ferraro
becomes the first female
1980 John Lennon is
Vice Presidential
shot and killed.
candidate.
1980 The Cabbage Patch
craze.
1986 The space shuttle, Challenger,
explodes after lift-off.
1989 The Berlin
Wall is torn down.
1983 The internet is established.
1980
1982
1984
1982 Prusiner discovers a new type of
infectious agent--an infectious protein
called a prion--that is responsible for the
sheep disease, scrapie.
1981 Margulis formalizes the
Endosymbiotic Theory of
Organelle Evolution.
1986
1988
1990
1988 Kary Mullis develops the
method of DNA amplification called
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR).
1984 Marshall demonstrates
that a bacterium, Helicobacter
pylori, causes peptic ulcers.
1983 Montaigner and Gallo identifies the
Human Immunodeficiency Virus as the
cause of AIDS.
1986 Beachy and Fraley show
that when plants are transformed
with the gene of a coat protein of
tobacco mosaic virus, the plants
become resistant to the virus. This
opens the new field of plant
immuno-genetics.
1990
1990-1999
1990 The invasion of Kuwait
by Iraq leads the U.S.A. into
1995 The Federal Building in
1999 The U.S. Senate holds
the Persian Gulf War.
1994 O.J. Simpson is
Oklahoma
City
is
bombed.
impeachment
hearings against
arrested for the murders of
President Bill Clinton.
Nicole Brown Simpson
1992 Riots break out in Los and Ronald Goldman.
Angeles after a not guilty
1996 Scottish scientists produce
verdict in the trial of police
a
cloned sheep they name Dolly.
officers charged in the
beating of Rodney King.
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
1999 Schulz identifies largest
bacterium Thiomargarita.
1993 Schopf
demonstrates that
cyanobacteria-like
organisms had evolved
3.46 billion years ago.
1998 Giovanoni finds a gene from an
unknown organism in sea water. Upon
further searching, this unknown organism is
ubiquitous and may be the most abundant
organism on Earth.
1995 Venter and
colleagues elucidate the
first complete genome
1994 Cano cultures sequence--Haemophilus
influenza.
bacteria from endospores in
40 million year old
1996 Kibota and Lynch estimate the E. coli
material.
genomic rate of deleterious mutations at
1993 W. French Anderson leads
about 1 in 10,000 cell divisions. This leads
first successful gene therapy.
the world’s biologists to re-think the meaning
of life.
1996 NASA scientists
find bacteria-like
fossils in rocks from
Mars.
2000
2000-2010
2000 Al Gore wins the popular
vote but George W. Bush wins in
the electoral college to become
President of the United States.
2002 The U.S. goes to war
in Afghanistan and
subsequently in Iraq.
September 11, 2001 Terrorists
hijack airplanes and crash into the
World Trade Center buildings, the
Pentagon, and a field in
Pennsylvania.
2000
2000 Artnzen and
colleagues develop the
first edible vaccine--a
genetically-modified
potato containing part of
the Norwalk virus.
2002
2003 Krispy Kreme comes to
Portland-Vancouver
2004
2003 After 10 years of
work, the first phase of
The Human Genome
Project--the sequencing
of the entire human
genome--is completed.
2003 A new, mysterious
respiratory disease
(SARS) that kills
healthy young adults
becomes epidemic.
2006
2008
2010