Transcript Eleventh Grade Science FCAT Review Session

Science FCAT
Benchmark Review
Strand A – The Nature of Matter
• What is matter?
– Anything that has mass and takes up space.
• Density – the amount of matter in a given
volume (D=M/V)
• Ductility – the ability to be pulled into a thin
strand, like a wire
• Malleability – the ability to be pressed or
pounded into a thin sheet
These are examples of?
Formula for Density
•D = M/V
•Where
–D=Density
–M=Mass
–V=Volume
Strand A – The Nature of Matter
• Electrical Conductivity – How well a
substance allows electricity to flow through
it
• Solubility – The ability to dissolve in
another substance
Strand A – The Nature of Matter
• Physical Properties
– Are those that can be observed without
changing the make-up, or identity of the
matter.
• Chemical Properties
– Describe matter based on its ability to change
into a new kind of matter. Ie,
paper/flammability, iron/O2
Strand A – The Nature of Matter
• Physical Change – occurs when a physical
property (size/shape) of a substance is
changed; many physical changes can be
undone. Ie, folding paper
• Chemical Change – occurs when a one or
more substances are changed into new
substances with different properties;
cannot be undone by physical means
Strand A – The Nature of Matter
Strand A – The Nature of Matter
• Defining Features
– Solid
• Keeps it shape and volume
– Liquid
• Takes the shape of its container
• Keeps the same volume, in a container or not
• Can flow
– Gas
• Takes the shape of its?
• Takes the volume of ?
• Can ?
Strand A – The Nature of Matter
• Boiling Point – temperature at which a substance
changes from a liquid state to a gaseous state
• Freezing Point – temperature at which a substance
changes from a liquid state to a solid state
• Melting Point – temperature at which a substance
changes from a solid state to a liquid state
• Condensation Point – temperature at which a substance
changes from a gaseous state to a liquid state
• Sublimation – change from the solid state to the gaseous
state
• Deposition – change from the gaseous state to the solid
state
Strand A – The Nature of Matter
• Temperature – measure of the average
kinetic energy of the particles of a
substance. Scales used?
Strand A – The Nature of Matter
• Waves
– Crest – peak/highest point of wave
– Trough – valley/lowest point of wave
– Amplitude – distance the wave oscillates from its
resting position. The larger the amplitude, the more
energy carried by the wave.
– Wavelength – the distance from one point on one
wave to a corresponding point on an adjacent wave,
ie. crest to crest, rp to rp, trough to trough
– Resting Position
http://id.mind.net/~zona/mstm/physics/waves/partsOfAWave/waveParts.htm
Strand A – The Nature of Matter
• Element – simplest form of matter
• Atom – smallest particle into which an
element can be divided and still have
properties of that element.
• Compound/Molecule – Two or more
elements that are combined.
• Mixture – a combination of two or more
substances that have not combined
chemically
Strand A – The Nature of Matter
• Subatomic Particles
– Proton – positive charge – nucleus
– Neutron – no charge – nucleus
– Electron – negative charge – outside the
nucleus (electron clouds)
• Proton and neutrons have about the same
mass. Electrons are significantly smaller.
• An atom is identified by the number of
protons in its nucleus
Strand A – The Nature of Matter
• Isotopes – Isotopes are atoms of the same
element that have a different number of
neutrons.
– Hydrogen has one proton.
• 0 neutron – protium
• 1 neutron – deuterium
• 2 neutrons – tritium
A. Mixture
B. Solution
C. Compound
D. Pure
Substance
Strand B - Energy
• Energy – the ability to do work
• Geothermal – energy obtained from the
thermal energy inside Earth
• Mechanical – energy an object has
because of its motion or position
(kinetic/potential)
• Nuclear – energy contained in the nuclei of
atoms
What kinds of power plants
are these?
Strand B - Energy
•
•
•
•
•
Wind – using the wind (turbines)
Hydroelectric – using water
Tidal – using the waves/tides
Solar – using sun (photovoltaic cells)
Fossil fuels – oil, coal, natural gas (formed
millions of years ago).
• Electrical – energy produced by electric
charges
• Turbines, turbines, turbines!!!!
• Remember that most power plants have a
turbine somewhere in them that allows
them to convert (not create) energy.
• Remember that energy can never be
created or destroyed.
What kinds of power plants
are these?
Strand B - Energy
• Sound – energy carried by sound waves
• Light – energy carried by light and other
kinds of electromagnetic waves
• Chemical – energy stored in chemical
bonds
• Thermal – Energy related to the
temperature of a substance
– Conduction, Convection, Radiation
Strand B - Energy
• Conduction – transfer of heat from a
warmer substance to a cooler substance
(contact)
• Convection – transfer of heat warmer
fluid/gas rises and cooler sinks
• Radiation – transfer of heat in the form of
electromagnetic waves at random
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
Strand B – Energy
• Law of Conservation of Energy – Energy
cannot be created nor destroyed, it can
only change form or be transferred
• Kinetic Energy – energy an object has in
motion
• Potential Energy – stored energy an object
has
Strand B - Energy
• Energy from Sun (electromagnetic
spectrum)
• Energy inefficiency (heat loss) ie, lamp
example
• Heat flow  warmer to cooler
• Energy flow – sun  plants  animals 
fossil fuels  heat
Benchmarks: SC.B.1.2.2, SC.B.1.2.3, SC.B.1.2.4, SC.B.1.2.5 and SC.B.1.2.6
F. Electrical
G. Heat
H. Light
I. Mechanical
Strand C – Force and Motion
• Force – push or pull
Scalars & Vectors
• The motion of objects can be described by words words such as distance, displacement, speed, velocity,
and acceleration. These mathematical quantities which
are used to describe the motion of objects can be
divided into two categories. The quantity is either a
scalar or a vector. These two categories can be
distinguished from one another by their distinct
definitions:
• Scalars are quantities which are fully described by a
magnitude alone.
• Vectors are quantities which are fully described by both
a magnitude and a direction.
Scalars & Vectors
• Distance and speed are scalar quantities
• Displacement and velocity are vector
quantities.
• Examples: While speed (like 30km/hr) is a
scalar, velocity (30km/hr North) is a vector,
consisting of a speed and a direction
(north).
Scalar or Vector?
•
•
•
•
•
•
5m
30 m/sec, East
20 degrees Celsius
256 bytes
4,000 calories
5 mi., right
Distance/Displacement
• Distance and displacement are two quantities
which may seem to mean the same thing, yet
they have distinctly different meanings and
definitions.
• Distance is a scalar quantity which refers to
"how much ground an object has covered"
during its motion.
• Displacement is a vector quantity which refers
to "how far out of place an object is"; it is the
object's change in position.
Distance/Displacement Check
• A student walks 4 meters East, 2 meters
South, 4 meters West, and finally 2 meters
North.
4 meters
2 meters
2 meters
4 meters
Distance/Displacement
• Even though the student has walked a total
distance of 12 meters, her displacement is 0
meters. During the course of her motion, she
has "covered 12 meters of ground" (distance =
12 m). Yet, when she is finished walking, she is
not "out of place" – i.e., there is no displacement
for her motion (displacement = 0 m).
Displacement, being a vector quantity, must give
attention to direction. The 4 meters east is
canceled by the 4 meters west; and the 2 meters
south is canceled by the 2 meters north.
Distance/Displacement Check
• The diagram below shows the position of a cross-country
skier at various times. At each of the indicated times, the
skier turns around and reverses the direction of travel. In
other words, the skier moves from A to B to C to D. Use
the diagram to determine the distance traveled by the
skier and the resulting displacement during these three
minutes.
A
B
40 m
40 m___
‘
C
100 m
‘
D
Distance/Displacement
• Seymour Action views soccer games from under
the bleachers. He frequently paces back and
forth to get the best view. The following diagram
below shows several of Seymour's positions at
various times. At each marked position,
Seymour makes a "U-turn" and moves in the
opposite direction. In other words, Seymour
moves from position A to B to C to D. What is
Seymour's resulting displacement and distance
of travel?
Distance/Displacement
D
B
C
A
___________________________________
-10
0
10
20
30
Let’s Check
• What is the displacement of a cross
country team that begins a ten mile course
ending up back at the school?
• What is the distance and displacement of
the race car drivers in the Indy 500?
Speed
• Speed is a scalar quantity which refers to
"how fast an object is moving." A fastmoving object has a high speed while a
slow-moving object has a low speed. An
object with no movement at all has a zero
speed.
Constant Speed
• Moving objects don't always travel with erratic and
changing speeds. Occasionally, an object will move at a
steady rate with a constant speed. That is, the object will
cover the same distance every regular interval of time.
For instance, a cross-country runner might be running
with a constant speed of 6 m/s in a straight line. If her
speed is constant, then the distance traveled every
second is the same. The runner would cover a distance
of 6 meters every second. If you measured her position
each second, you would notice that her position was
changing by 6 meters each second. The following data
tables depict both constant and changing speeds:
Constant Speed
30
Time (s)
Position (m)
25
0
0
1
6
10
2
12
5
3
18
4
24
20
15
Time
0
0
1
2
3
4
Changing Speed
18
Time (s)
Position (m)
0
0
1
1
2
4
3
9
4
16
16
14
12
10
Time
8
6
4
2
0
0
1
2
3
4
Instantaneous Speed
• Since a moving object often changes its speed
during its motion, it is common to distinguish
between the average speed and the
instantaneous speed. The distinction is as
follows:
• Instantaneous Speed - speed at any given
instant in time.
• Average Speed - average of all instantaneous
speeds; found simply by a distance/time ratio.
Instantaneous Speed
• You might think of the
instantaneous speed as
the speed which the
speedometer reads at
any given instant in time
and the average speed
as the average of all the
speedometer readings
during the course of the
trip.
Average Speed
• As an object moves, it often undergoes changes
in speed. For example, during an average trip to
school, there are many changes in speed.
Rather than the speedometer maintaining a
steady reading, the needle constantly moves up
and down to reflect the stopping and starting
and the accelerating and decelerating. At one
instant, the car may be moving at 50 mi/hr and
at another instant, it may be stopped (i.e., 0
mi/hr). Yet during the course of the trip to school
the person might average a speed of 25 mi/hr.
Average Speed
• The instantaneous speed of an object is not to be
confused with the average speed. Average speed is a
measure of the distance traveled in a given period of
time. Suppose that during your trip to school, you
traveled a distance of 5 miles and the trip lasted 0.2
hours (12 minutes). The average speed of your car could
be determined as:
Average Speed
•
•
•
•
Average Speed = Distance/Time
Average Speed = 5 miles/.2 hour
Average Speed = 25 miles/hour
On the average, your car was moving with a
speed of 25 miles per hour. During your trip,
there may have been times that you were
stopped and other times that your speedometer
was reading 50 miles per hour; yet on the
average you were moving with a speed of 25
miles per hour.
Average Speed Check
• While on vacation, Lisa Carr traveled a total distance of
400 miles. Her trip took 8 hours. What was her average
speed? To compute her average speed, simply divide
the distance of travel by the time of travel.
• Lisa Carr averaged a speed of 50 miles per hour. She
may not have been traveling at a constant speed of 50
mi/hr. She undoubtedly, was stopped at some instant in
time (perhaps for a bathroom break or for lunch) and she
probably was going 65 mi/hr at other instants in time.
Yet, she averaged a speed of 50 miles per hour.
Velocity
• Velocity is a vector quantity which refers to "the rate at
which an object changes its position."
• Imagine a person moving one step forward and one step
back. Because the person always returns to the original
position, the motion would never result in a change in
position. Since velocity is defined as the rate at which
the position changes, this motion results in zero velocity.
• If a person in motion wishes to maximize his/her velocity,
then that person must make every effort to maximize the
amount that he/she is displaced from his/her original
position. Every step must go into moving that person
further from where he/she started. Heading in the
opposite direction effectively begins to cancel whatever
displacement there once was.
Describing Velocity
• The task of describing the direction of the velocity vector
is easy! The direction of the velocity vector is the same
as the direction in which an object is moving. It does not
matter whether the object is speeding up or slowing
down, if the object is moving rightwards, then its velocity
is described as being rightwards. If an object is moving
downwards, then its velocity is described as being
downwards. Thus an airplane moving towards the west
with a speed of 300 mi/hr has a velocity of 300 mi/hr,
west. Note that speed has no direction (it is a scalar) and
that velocity is simply the speed with a direction.
Terminal Velocity
• The terminal velocity of an object falling
toward the earth, in non-vacuum, is the
speed at which the gravitational force is
pulling downwards and an opposing force
is faced by the resistance of air
(resistance) pushing upwards. 9.8 m/s2
Acceleration
• Acceleration is a vector quantity which is
defined as "the rate at which an object changes
its velocity." An object is accelerating if it is
changing its velocity.
• Sports announcers will occasionally say that a
person is accelerating if he/she is moving fast.
Yet acceleration has nothing to do with going
fast. A person can be moving very fast, and still
not be accelerating. Acceleration has to do with
changing how fast an object is moving. If an
object is not changing its velocity, then the
object is not accelerating.
Strand C – Force and Motion
• Non-contact forces – magnetism/gravity
– Weight v. Mass
• Series Circuit – connecting a circuit in a
line
• Parallel Circuit – divide the current among
different devices
Which is parallel? Which is series?
Force
• A force is a push or pull. If an object
accelerates (speeds up, slows down, or
turns), a force is acting upon it.
• The total force felt by an object is called
the net force.
• Some force are not visible (i.e. gravity,
magnetism or earth’s gravitational field).
Forces
• Balanced forces are two or more forces
that cancel out each others effects and do
not cause a change in motion. Net force
equals zero.
• Unbalanced forces exceed zero and
therefore cause motion.
Newton’s First Law of Motion
• Also know as Newton’s law of inertia.
• “An object will remain at rest or move with
constant velocity until it is acted upon by a
net force”
• Difficult to prove because of friction.
Friction
• The unbalanced force that brings nearly
everything to a stop.
• The smoother the surface, the ?
• Static friction – prevents an object from
moving when force is applied (i.e. pushing
something heavy or walking).
• Sliding friction – slows an object that can
slide (i.e. skidding tires, shuffling shoes).
Friction
• Rolling friction – needed to make a wheel
turn. Rolling friction pushes back so that a
tire can roll forward.
• Air resistance – acts against the direction
of motion and gets stronger as an object
goes faster.
Newton’s Second Law of
Motion
• “An object acted upon by a net force will
accelerate in the direction of the force
according to the following equation:
– Acceleration = net force/mass
– a = F net/m or
F net = ma
– Force is measured in Newtons (N)
– 1 N = 1 kg . m/s2
Newton’s Third Law
• For every action, there is an equal and
opposite reaction.
• While driving down the road, an
unfortunate bug strikes the windshield of a
bug. Quite obviously, this is a case of
Newton's third law of motion. The bug hit
the bus and the windshield hit the bus.
Which of the two forces is greater: the
force on the bug or the force on the bus?
• Rockets are unable to accelerate in space
because ...
– a. there is no air in space for the rockets to
push off of.
– b. there is no gravity is in space.
– c. there is no air resistance in space.
– d. ... nonsense! Rockets do accelerate in
space.
A. Earth’s Shape
B. Earth’s Gravity
C. Earth’s Mountains
D. Earth’s Atmosphere
Benchmarks: SC.C.2.2.4, SC.C.2.2.2, SC.C.2.2.3
F. Ice Block
H. Sand Block
G. Sponge Block
I. Plastic Block
Strand D – Processes that Shape
the Earth
• Igneous Rocks – formed when magma or
lava cools and becomes solid.
• Sedimentary – formed when sediment is
pressed and cemented
• Metamorphic – formed when rock have
been changed over time with high
pressure and temperature
Strand D – Processes that Shape
the Earth
• Melting – hot temperatures deep inside Earth
melt rocks, forming magma
• Cooling and Hardening – Magma that rises from
deep inside earth cools and hardens into rock
(both above/below surface).
• Weathering and Erosion – breaks apart existing
rocks, forming sediment. Erosion moves
sediment.
• Compacting and Cementing – Pressure
compacts; water between particles evaporates.
• Heat and Pressure – melt and squeeze minerals
changing the minerals or grain size.
Rock Cycle
Weathering Processes
• Mechanical Weathering – process whereby rock
physically break down into smaller pieces but do
not change chemical composition.
• Chemical Weathering – process whereby rock is
broken down and chemical composition
changes.
Agents of Mechanical
Weathering
• Ice Wedging – water seeps into cracks or
joints in rocks and freeze.
• Organic Activity – Roots of plants and
animals burrowing.
• Abrasion – collision of rocks with one
another because of gravity, running water,
or wind
Agents of Chemical Weathering
• Hydrolysis – minerals chemically reacting
with water. Minerals affected may be
transported by water causing leaching.
• Carbonation – minerals chemically
reacting with carbonic acid (CO2 + H2O)
– Stalactites – on ceiling holding tight (tite)
– Stalagmites – on ground might make it up
Agents of Chemical Weathering
• Oxidation – metallic minerals chemically
reacting with oxygen causing oxidation.
• Acid Precipitation – CO2 + precipitation
• Plant acids – weak acids produced by
plants
Rates of Weathering
• Rock Composition – Quartz is least affected;
limestone is most affected.
• Amount of Exposure – the more exposure the
faster it will weather
• Climate – Climates with much rainfall and
freezing contribute most. Very hot or very cold =
little weathering. Moist/humid = much
weathering.
• Topography – temperature/slope
Continental Drift
• Theory stating that continents moved.
• Proposed by Alfred Wegener.
• Evidence included:
– Identical fossil remains on the coast of South
America and Africa
– Age and type of rock on the coastline
• Appalachian mountain chain
– Glacier debris in Africa and South America
Pangaea
Seafloor Spreading
• Suggested by Harry Hess.
• A break or rift in the earth’s crust allowing
magma to go out.
• Ocean floor
Paleomagnetism
Plate tectonics
• Combines continental drift and seafloor
spreading – not only describes continental
movement but proposes an explanation on
why it moves.
• Two types of earth’s crust.
– Oceanic – makes up the ocean floor.
– Continental – makes up the continental
landmasses.
Lithospheric Plates
Lithospheric Plates
• Lithosphere – the rigid upper mantle of the
earth’s crust.
– Divergent Boundary – Plate moving apart.
– Convergent Boundary – Plates moving toward
each other.
• Subduction Zone
• Plate density
– Transform fault boundary – Plate grind past
each other.
Convection Cells
This is the major theory on how lithospheric plates move.
In which direction is heat flowing?
Earthquakes
• Caused by transform plate boundary
movement.
– Aftershocks
• Focus is where the earthquake begins.
• Epicenter is the place directly above the
focus.
Seismic Waves
• Primary waves or P waves – fastest and
first to be recorded on a seismograph.
• Secondary waves or S waves – second to
be recorded on a seismograph.
• Surface waves or L waves – slowest
moving waves and last to be recorded.
Locating an Earthquake
Earthquake Measurement
• Richter scale – measures the amount of
energy released by an earthquake.
– Largest recorded was 9.6
• Mercalli scale – measures the amount of
damage an earthquake causes.
– Measured by Roman numerals I - XII
Tsunamis
• A giant ocean wave usually caused by a
major earthquake with its epicenter on the
ocean floor.
Earthquake Safety
• Before an earthquake, be prepared.
• During an earthquake, stay calm.
• After an earthquake, be cautious.
Volcanism
• Any activity that includes the movement of
magma toward or onto the surface of the
earth.
• Magma versus lava.
• Vent – opening through
which molten rock flows.
• Volcano – vent and
volcanic material.
Pacific Ring of Fire
Hotspots
Volcanic Cones
• Shield Cones – broad, gentle sloping
• Cinder Cones – steep slopes caused by
explosive eruptions
• Composite or stratovolcano – features of
both
Shield Cones
Meteorology
• Meteorology is the study of the
atmosphere.
• The atmosphere is a layer of gases and
particles that surround the earth.
• Influences almost every living thing.
• Weather is the general condition of the
atmosphere at a particular place and time.
• Climate is the general weather condition
over many years.
Composition of Atmosphere
• The most abundant elements in the air are
the gases nitrogen (±75%), oxygen
(±24%) and argon (±1%).
• The most abundant compounds in the air
are the gases carbon dioxide (CO2) and
water vapor (H2O).
• Ozone (O3) is found in the upper
atmosphere. It absorbs harmful ultraviolet
rays from the sun.
Atmospheric Pressure
• Gravity pulls the gases of the atmosphere
toward the earth’s surface and holds them there.
• The ratio of the weight of the air to the area of
the surface on which it presses is called
atmospheric pressure.
• Since there is less air at higher altitudes, there is
less weight pressing down. This explains why
there is lower atmospheric pressure at higher
altitudes.
Barometer
• A barometer is an
instrument that
measures
atmospheric
pressure. Two types –
mercurial and
aneroid. Miami
averages ±30 inches
of Hg.
Layers of the Atmosphere
• Four basic layers.
• Troposphere – closest to the earth. Nearly
all weather changes occur here.
• Stratosphere – second layer from the
earth. Most of the ozone is found here.
• Mesosphere – known for its significant
temperature drop.
• Thermosphere – Last layer. Very thin air.
Air Pollution
• Any substance in the atmosphere that is
harmful to people, animals, plants or
property is an air pollutant.
• Main source is the burning of fossil fuels.
• Gases emitted by the burning of fossil
fuels form acids when combined with
water in the air – Acid Precipitation.
• International and federal intervention is
needed.
Solar Energy
• All the energy the earth receives from the
sun travels through space between the
earth and the sun as radiation.
• Light is a form of radiation we can;
however, there are many other forms that
cannot be seen.
• The waves that make up all forms of
radiation are called electromagnetic
waves.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Scattering
• Water and dust suspended in the
atmosphere reflect and bend the sun’s
rays. As a result, sunlight comes from all
directions.
• Short wavelengths (blue) are easier to
scatter making the sky blue.
• Long wavelengths (red) are last to be
scattered making the sun red at
dawn/dusk.
Reflection
• Of the total amount of solar energy
reaching the earth’s atmosphere, about
20% is absorbed by the atmosphere.
• About 30% is scattered back into space or
reflected by the clouds or surface.
• About 50% is absorbed by the surface.
• The different surfaces on earth vary their
absorption and reflection rate.
The Greenhouse Effect
• Gas molecules in the atmosphere trap
heat energy and prevent it from escaping
back into space. As a result the lower
atmosphere becomes warm.
• Essentially, rays come in but can’t get out.
• Similar to a vehicle on a hot day.
The Greenhouse Effect
Conduction and Convection
• Not all heating of the atmosphere comes
from radiation.
• Conduction has particle to particle contact.
• Convection involves the movement of
gases or liquids when they are heated
unevenly.
• Cooler air sinks.
• Warmer air rises.
Winds
• More solar energy at equator cause a belt
of low pressure.
• The poles have colder, heavier air that
tends to sink.
• Pressure differences in the atmosphere at
the equator and at the poles create a
general movement of air worldwide.
Winds
Breezes
• Gentle winds that extend over distances of
less than 100 km are called breezes.
• Land surfaces heat up faster and cool
more rapidly than water surfaces do.
• During the day, warm air above the land
rises and the cool air above the water
moves in to replace it.
• During the night, vice versa.
Atmospheric Moisture
• The amount of water vapor in the atmosphere is
known as humidity.
• When the air holds all the water vapor it can, it is
said to be saturated.
• The higher the temperature, the more water
vapor it can hold.
• Relative Humidity compares the mass of water
vapor in the air with the amount of water vapor
the air can hold at that temperature.
Atmospheric Moisture
• A psychrometer, hair hygrometer or electric
hygrometer are instruments used to measure
relative humidity.
• Specific humidity refers to the actual amount of
water vapor in the air.
• The temperature to which air must be cooled to
reach saturation is dew point. Any temperature
below dew point will cause dew.
• If the dew point is below the freezing
temperature of water, water vapor will change
directly into solid ice crystals, or frost.
Dew and frost.
Remember condensation and deposition?
Clouds and Fog
• Clouds and fog are visible masses of tiny
water or ice particles suspended in the
atmosphere.
• Both originate from water vapor in the air.
• Not all clouds cause rain.
• Fog generally forms near the surface of
the earth when air close to the ground is
cooled.
Clouds
Fog
Precipitation
• Any moisture that falls from the air to earth’s
surface is called precipitation.
• Rain is liquid precipitation. Measured with rain
gauge.
– Drizzle if < .5 mm in diameter.
• Snow is the most common form of solid
precipitation.
• Sleet is ice pellets that form when rain falls
through a layer of freezing air.
• Hail is lumps of ice. Can be spherical or
irregular.
Air Masses
• A large body of air with uniform
temperature and moisture content is called
an air mass.
• Air masses over polar regions are usually
very cold and dry.
• Air masses over tropical regions are
usually warm and moist.
• Air masses are classified according to
their source region.
Fronts
• When two unlike air masses meet, density
differences usually keep the two air
masses separate.
• The boundary that forms between the two
air masses is called a front.
• The kind of front that forms depends on
how the air masses are moving.
Types of Fronts
• Cold front – when a cold air mass overtakes a
warm air mass.
– A long line of thunderstorms, called a squall line, may
occur just ahead of a fast moving cold front.
• Warm front – when a warm air mass overtakes a
cooler air mass.
• Stationary front – when two air masses meet
and neither is displaced.
• Occluded front – when a fast moving cold front
overtakes a warm front, lifting the warm air
completely off the ground.
Cyclones
• A severe tropical storm, with windspeeds
starting at 120km/hr is called a hurricane.
– In the North Pacific they are called typhoons.
• A storm accompanied by thunder, lightning
and strong winds is called a thunderstorm.
• A tornado is a whirling, funnel shaped
cyclone.
– Tornadoes over the ocean are called
waterspouts.
Weather Instruments
•
•
•
•
Thermometer – measure temperature.
Anemometer – measures wind speed.
Wind vane – determines wind direction.
Radiosonde – instrument package to investigate
weather conditions in the upper atmosphere.
• Radar – uses radio waves to detect precipitation
and storms.
• Supercomputers – store weather data, interpret
data, and forecast.
A. Sandy flatlands
C. Underground caves
B. Offshore islands
D. Mangrove swamps
Which of the following did NOT cause the formation of the Grand Canyon;
F. Weathering
H. Water
G. Lava
I. Wind Erosion
Strand E – Earth and Space
• Tides – daily rise and fall of the oceans
caused mainly by the moon
– Neap – least extreme (happen twice a month)
– Spring – most extreme (happen ?)
Astronomy is…
• The study of the universe beyond earth
• One of the oldest branches of science
• Ancient Babylonians charted the positions
of planets and stars 4,000 years ago.
• Modern astronomers use telescopes and
other instruments.
Stars
• A star is a body of gases that gives off a
tremendous amount of energy in the form
of light and heat.
• Stars can vary in size, shape, and color.
• Distances between the stars and earth are
measured in light-years; a light year is the
distance that light travels in one year.
Star Brightness
• Apparent Magnitude – the brightness of
a star as it appears from the earth
• Absolute Magnitude – the true brightness
of a star; how bright the star would appear
if it was seen from a distance of 32.6 lightyears
Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram
• The H-R Diagram graphs the surface
temperatures of stars against their
absolute magnitudes
• Most stars are called Main-Sequence
Stars, including the sun and other stars in
the night sky
• Cool, large, bright stars are Giants or
Supergiants
• Hot, small, dim stars are White Dwarfs
Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram
What scale is
used here?
A Star is Born
• A star begins as a nebula, a cloud of gas
and dust.
• The particles of gas and dust come
together, and the nebula shrinks in size
and begins to spin.
• The shrinking, spinning nebula flattens into
a disk of matter called a protostar.
• When nuclear fusion occurs, a prostar
begins to generate energy and is classified
as a “star.”
The Life of a Star
•
•
•
•
•
1st Stage: Nebula
Protostar Star
2nd Stage: Main Sequence Star
3rd Stage: Giant/Supergiant
4th Stage: White Dwarf
5th Stage: Black Dwarf
– No Black Dwarfs exist yet
Star Terms
• A white dwarf which explodes, releasing
energy, gas, and dust is a nova.
• A star that has tremendous energy and
blows itself apart is called a supernova.
• A hole in space with gravity so great that
not even light can escape is called a black
hole. It is caused by the collapse of a large
supernova.
Constellations
• Constellations are star patterns that occur
in shifting, but fixed patterns.
• Constellations have been used to locate
other stars in the sky or to guide travelers.
• Astronomers recognize 88 constellations
• Many are named after mythical creatures.
Constellations
Galaxies
• Galaxies are large-scale groups of stars
bound together by gravitational attraction.
• Spiral Galaxies
• Elliptical Galaxies
• Irregular Galaxies
• The Sun is a star in the Milky Way Galaxy,
a Spiral Galaxy.
Spiral Galaxy
Elliptical Galaxy
Irregular Galaxy
The Sun
• The center of the sun is the core and, like
the rest of the sun, is made entirely of gas.
• The process of nuclear fusion, which
creates the sun’s energy, occurs in the
core.
• The core is surrounded by the radiative
zone and the convective zone.
The Sun’s Atmosphere
• The photosphere (light sphere) is the
innermost layer of the atmosphere and is
often considered the surface of the sun.
• The chromosphere, or color sphere,
appears to glow with a reddish light.
• The corona, the outermost layer of the
atmosphere, prevents the atomic particles
from the surface from escaping into space.
The Sun’s Composition
Solar Activity
• Sunspots are cool, dark areas of gas
within the photosphere that are caused by
powerful magnetic fields.
• Prominences are clouds of glowing gases
which form huge arches reaching above
the sun’s surface.
Solar Activity, con’t.
• Solar flares are sudden outward eruptions
of electrically charged atomic particles.
• Auroras are bands of light that appear in
the sky after magnetic storms.
The Solar System
• Includes the sun and the bodies revolving
around the sun.
• There are 9 major bodies, or planets, that orbit
the sun.
• Copernicus suggested a heliocentric, or suncentered universe, in the 1500s. Before, most
people believed that the sun, planets,
and
stars orbited around the earth.
The Inner Planets
• Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars are the four
planets closest to the sun and are known as the
Inner, or Terrestrial, planets.
• All of these planets consist mostly of solid rock,
with a metal core. These planets have no rings
and a maximum of two moons.
• The inner planets have impact craters, which
resulted from the collisions of the planets with
objects made of rock.
Mercury
• Planet closest to sun
• Does not have any moons
• Probably has not changed much since the
creation of the solar system
• Has a thin atmosphere because it is so
close to the sun and so small
• Huge temperature range (-173C - +427C)
Venus
• Second planet from the sun
• Sometimes called the earth’s twin; they are
almost the same size, mass, and density.
• Average surface temperature is 435C – too hot
to support life
• May have been oceans and volcanoes on Venus
• Atmosphere is 96% CO2
Earth
•
•
•
•
•
•
Fifth largest planet
Has one moon
Active Geologic History
Only planet with known life
Only planet with oceans & abundant H2O
Average surface temperature is 14C
Mars
• Has 2 moons
• Has similar rotation and seasons as the
Earth
• Geologically Active – Volcanic Activity
• Astronomers believe that Mars once had
a warmer & wetter climate
The Outer Planets
• Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are called
the giant planets and are some of the largest in
the solar system.
– Called the Jovian Planets
– Larger and more massive than the other planets, but
they are far less dense
– Have thick atmosphere made of H2 and He gases
– Core of rock, metal, and H2O
Jupiter
•
•
•
•
•
Largest planet in the solar system
At least 16 moons and 1 ring
Liquid metallic core
Mostly made of gases
Surface is marked by light- and darkcolored bands
• Great Red Spot: giant rotating storm that
has been raging for several hundred years
Saturn
•
•
•
•
•
Has at least 20 moons and several rings
Spins rapidly
Has bands of colored clouds
Less dense than Jupiter
Has a very complex system
of
rings
Uranus
• Has at least 15 moons and 11 rings
• Unusual Rotation: rotates like a rolling ball
• Greenish color indicates that atmosphere
contains methane
• A core of rock and metals is
at
the center of this planet
Neptune
• Has 8 moons and possibly 4 rings
• Atmosphere made of helium, hydrogen,
and methane
• Very active weather system
• Great Dark Spot: An earth-sized storm is
always visible in Neptune’s atmosphere
Pluto
• Accidental Discovery
• No longer considered a planet Orbits sun in
unusually elongated ellipse
• Made mostly of frozen methane, rock, and ice
• One moon – Charon – which is half as large as
Pluto
• Pluto could have once been a moon of Neptune,
based on its size, unusual orbit, and large moon.
Order of the Planets
Asteroids, Comets, &
Meteoroids
• Asteroids are fragments of rock that
orbit the sun.
• A comet is a body of ice, rock, dust,
methane, and ammonia which orbits
the sun in a long ellipse.
• A meteoroid is a small bit of rock or metal that
moves through the solar system
• A meteor is a meteoroid that enters the earth’s
atmosphere.
• A meteorite is any part of a meteor that remains
after it hits the earth’s surface.
Halley’s Comet
• A short-period comet that last appeared in
1986. It will reappear in 2062.
The Moon
• A body that orbits a larger body is called a
satellite.
• The moon is a natural satellite of the earth.
• The moon’s gravity is 1/6 less that on earth.
• The moon has no atmosphere and cannot
support life.
• 6 Apollo Spacecraft have visited the moon.
• Temperature ranges from –170C to +134C.
Lunar Surface
• Highlands of light-colored rock.
• Dark areas of solidified lava are called
maria; they are the remains of volcanic
eruptions.
• Long, deep channels called rilles run
through the maria.
Craters
• Craters are bowlshaped depressions
found on the surface
of the moon. They
were most likely
created from debris
that struck the moon.
Eclipses
• An eclipse occurs when one planetary body
passes through the shadow of another.
• When the moon is between the earth and the
sun, the shadow of the moon may fall upon the
earth, causing a solar eclipse.
• A lunar eclipse occurs when then earth is
positioned between the moon and the sun, and
the earth’s shadow crosses the lighted half of
the moon.
Strand E – Earth and Space
• Solar Eclipse
– When moon passes between Earth and sun
Strand E – Earth and Space
• Lunar Eclipse
– When Earth passes between sun and moon
Solar Eclipse
Lunar Eclipse
The Lunar Cycle
• For much of history, people were able to
measure the passing of time by keeping
track of the changing phases of the moon.
• Eventually, calendars were created to
track the passing of time.
Days, Months, & Years
• A day is the time required for the earth to
make one rotation on its axis; 24 hours.
• A lunar month is the time required for the
moon to go through one cycle of phases
as it orbits the earth; 29.5 days.
• A solar year is the time required for the
earth to make one orbit around the sun;
365.24 days.
How do we get our seasons?
Strand E – Earth and Space
• Satellite – object that revolves around a
larger object in space
– Moons are natural satellites
– Artificial satellites serve technological
purposes
• Difference between probe and satellite?
F
The shape of the orbit
G The closeness of Mars
H The presence of a moon
I The distance from the Sun
Strand F – Processes of Life
• Biology is the scientific study of living
things.
• There are more than 2 million species of
living things on the earth. They range in
size from microscopic bacteria to huge
blue whales and towering redwood trees.
• Living things also differ greatly in where
and how they live.
Processes of Living Things
• Characteristics include: made up of
cells, reproduce, grow, obtain and use
energy, and respond to the environment.
• Other characteristics may include: need
water, composed of many chemical
substances and are highly organized,
have a definite structure and size, have
a definite life-span, show adaptation,
evolve, or change, over long periods of
time.
Levels of Organization
• Levels of organization
– Subatomic Particles ->
Atoms -> Molecules ->
Cells -> Tissues ->
Organs -> Organ
Systems -> Organism
-> Population ->
Community ->
Ecosystem (Biome) ->
Biosphere
Levels of Organization
• Population – the simplest grouping of organisms
in nature (all the frogs in a pond).
• Community – all the populations of different
organisms within a given area (all the animals in
the pond).
• Ecosystem (biome) – geographic area that has a
particular type of community (abiotic/biotic).
• Biosphere – portion of the earth in which living
things exist (lithosphere/hydrosphere/
atmosphere).
Fields of Biology
• Traditionally, biology has been divided into two
major fields. Botany deals with plants, and
zoology with animals. Botany and zoology are
further divided into various branches and
specialized areas of study. But most branches of
biology--for example, anatomy (the study of the
structure of living things) and genetics (the study
of heredity)--apply to both plants and animals.
Breaking it Down . . .
• Biology may also be divided into ecology,
physiology, and systematics. Ecology
deals with the relationships among living
things and between organisms and their
environment. Physiology concerns life
functions, such as digestion and
respiration. Systematics, also called
taxonomy, is the scientific classification of
plants and animals.
Why is Biology Important?
• Biological research has greatly affected people's lives.
For example, farm production has soared as biologists
have helped develop better varieties of plants and new
agricultural techniques. Biologists also work in industry,
especially the pharmaceutical and food industries.
Biotechnologists develop new methods for the
preparation of products using microorganisms.
Discoveries in biology have enabled doctors to prevent,
treat, or cure many diseases. Research on the
relationships between living things and their environment
has helped in the management
of wildlife and
other natural resources.
Prokaryote v. Eukaryote
• Prokaryote – a single
celled organism
without a nucleus
• Eukaryote - a singlecelled or multi-cellular
organism whose cells
contain a distinct
membrane-bound
nucleus.
Nutrition
• Autotrophs – organisms that can make their own
food. Can photosynthesize. Directly or indirectly
produce food for heterotrophs.
• Heterotrophs – Must obtain food.
– Herbivores – feed on plants.
– Carnivores – feed on animals
• Predators – attack and kill prey
• Scavengers – feed on dead animals they find
– Omnivores – feed both on plants and animals
– Saprobes – obtain nutrients by breaking down the
remains of dead plants and animals. Bacteria and
fungus fall into this group.
Changes over time
• Fossils – physical remains of organisms.
• Natural selection – the process of organisms to
change over time.
• Adaptation – a characteristic or trait that helps
an organism survive in its environment.
• Genetic variation – variety in offspring.
• Mutation – greater variation or random changes.
• Extinction – When the organisms die.
• Mass extinction – many species die at one time.
Symbiotic Relationships
• Relationships in which two different
organisms live in close association to the
benefit of at least one of them.
– Mutualism – both organisms benefit
– Commensalism – one organism benefits,
the other remains unaffected
– Parasitism – one organism
benefits, the other is harmed
Specializations
• Biology is such a broad subject that most
biologists specialize in some area of study.
– Zoology – study animals
• Marine Biology – study life in the oceans
• Herpetologist – study reptiles
• Ichthyologist – study fish
– Microbiology – study viruses
and very small things.
Strand F – Processes of Life
• Skeletal – framework/support
• Muscular – muscles/help things inside
your body move (voluntary/involuntary)
• Digestive – breaks down food into
substances the body can use
• Excretory – removes wastes
• Respiratory – getting O2 into body
• Circulatory – transports needed
substances and carries away waste
• Nervous – controls and coordinates the
bodies activities
• Endocrine – regulates the bodies activities
by producing hormones
• Immune – protects body against disease
• Reproductive – system involved in
creating a new organism
• Mitosis – cell division/complete process of
copying and dividing the whole cell
• Plant cell v. Animal cell – Plant cells can
have all the animal cells structures and a
cell wall and chloroplasts.
What kind of cell is this?
Strand F – Processes of Life
• Osmosis – diffusion of water across a
membrane
• Diffusion – movement from an area of
higher concentration to lesser
concentration
• Endoplasmic Reticulum – makes proteins
and transports materials
• Mitochondria – transforms the energy from
the food into a source cells can use
“powerhouse”
• Nucleus – contains cell’s DNA
• Ribosomes – puts proteins together
• Golgi Bodies – helps package and
distribute products within the cell
• Cytoplasm – gel-like fluid that takes up
most of the space inside a cell
• Cell wall – stiff outer barrier of plant cell
• Vacuoles – holds waste products
• Cell membrane – structure that surrounds
the cytoplasm of a cell
• Nuclear membrane – structure that
surrounds the nucleus of a cell
• Chloroplast – contains chlorophyll
Strand F – Processes of Life
• Sexual Reproduction – combining cells
from two different parents (gametes)
• Asexual Reproduction – one parent
organism
• Traits inherited from parent
• Dominant allelle – if present, determines
trait
• Recessive allelle – masked if dominant
allelle is present
Strand F – Processes of Life
• Genotype – set of genes carried by an
organism
• Phenotype – physical appearance of an
organism
• Homozygous – TT or tt
• Heterozygous - Tt
Strand F – Processes of Life
• Punnett Square – used to predict what
traits offspring will have
• Adaptations – structures, behaviors, or
other traits in an organism that help it to
survive in its environment.
– Ie spiny leaves for cacti to reduce water loss
– Beak shapes for types of seeds available
• Normal differences within species is
genetic variation.
• Random changes are mutations and can
be harmful. Ie a brown polar bear.
• Fossils – plant and animal
– Pangeae
– History of Earth
A bones
C heart
B ears
D lungs
Strand G – How Living Things
Interact with their Environment
• Virus – microscopic particle that can infect
the cells of an organism. They replicate
themselves only by infecting a host cell.
Organism Classification
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
Classification of Living Things
• Monera – small, simple single prokaryotic cell
– bacteria, blue-green algae, and spirochetes
• Protista – large, single eukaryotic cell
– protozoans and algae of various types
• Fungi – multicellular filamentous form with specialized
eukaryotic cells
– funguses, molds, mushrooms, yeasts, mildews, and smuts
• Plantae – multicellular form with specialized eukaryotic cells;
do not have their own means of locomotion
– mosses, ferns, woody and non-woody flowering plants
• Animalia – multicellular form with specialized eukaryotic cells;
have their own means of locomotion
– sponges, worms, insects, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and
mammals
• Biotic Factor – living things or their
materials that directly or indirectly affect an
organism in its environment
• Abiotic Factor – non-living
physical/chemical factors which affect
organisms in its environment (light,
temperature, type of soil/rock, ph level,
water availability, pollutants)
The Water Cycle
• The continuous movement of water from
the earth’s atmosphere to the earth’s
surface and back to the atmosphere again.
• Also known as hydrologic cycle.
Water Cycle Processes
• Evaporation – process by which liquid
water changes into water vapor (86% from
ocean; 14% from freshwater sources).
• Transpiration – process by which plants
give off water vapor into the atmosphere.
• Evaportranspiration – combined processes
of evaporation and transpiration.
Water Cycle Processes
• Condensation – expanding/cooling
causing cloud formation.
• Precipitation – process by which water
falls from clouds to the earth (i.e. rain,
snow, sleet, and/or hail). About 75% of
precipitation lands on the ocean.
• Runoff – water that flows over the land into
streams and rivers.
• Groundwater – water that soaks deep in
soil and rock
Water Budget
• Continuous cycle of evapotranspiration,
condensation and precipitation.
• Local water budget is usually not
balanced.
• < evapotranspiration + > precipitation =
flooding
• > evapotranspiration + < precipitation =
drought
Water Conservation
• Water uses and increased demand.
• 90% of water used by cities/industries is
returned as waste water.
• Water Conservation
• Finding other sources/Desalination
(removing salts from ocean water).
The Water Cycle
The Oxygen Cycle
• Natural process that maintains the
chemical balance of oxygen in the
atmosphere.
• Animals, bacteria, plants, forest fires,
burning of fuels (industry) consume
oxygen.
• Land and ocean plants produce large
quantities of oxygen during daylight.
• The oxygen content is in a state of
balance.
The Oxygen Cycle
The Nitrogen Cycle
• This process maintains the amount of
nitrogen in the atmosphere.
• Nitrogen fixing bacteria in soil and roots
remove nitrogen from the air, which are
vital for plant growth.
• Animals eat plants. Animals defecate or
die.
• Denitrification bacteria release the
nitrogen back into the air.
The Nitrogen Cycle
Strand G – How Living Things
Interact with Their Environment
• Plant Behavior
– Gravitropism – response to gravity
– Phototropism – response to light
– Thigmotropism – response to touch
• Renewable v. Nonrenewable Resources
• Threatened – species that may become
endangered
• Endangered – species that may become
extinct
• Extinct – a condition in which there are no
more living members of a particular
species
F Alligators destroy sawgrass.
G Alligators feed on sawgrass.
H Sawgrass helps the alligator
travel.
I Sawgrass and alligators
depend on each other.
A carbon dioxide
B chloroplast
C sugar
D sunlight
F grasshopper
G hawk
H mouse
I rabbit
A Record when the seeds
sprout and begin to grow.
B Make sure the seeds
have enough sunlight.
C Predict which seeds will
sprout
D Plant more seeds.
Strand H – The Nature of Science
• Scientific Method
– Problem Statement
– Hypothesize
– Design Experiment
– Experiment
– Collect/Analyze Data
– Draw Conclusions
– Communicate Results
• Variable – factor in the experiment that
changes
• Control – factor in an experiment that
remains the same
• Dependent – factor whose value is the
result you are testing
• Independent – factor the scientist controls
• Intervening - unknown factors
• Theory – an idea that is the best
explanation of many observations and
helps make new predictions
• Law – scientific explanation that describes
how some part of the world/universe acts
under certain conditions
Strand H – The Nature of Science
• Our understanding of the world constantly
changes as we learn more about it.
• We come up with a hypothesis based on
our previous experience and research.
• All of science is interconnected. Scientific
concepts hold true in most disciplines.
• When experimenting, it is important to
repeat your experiment to determine
reliability of results.
Strand H – The Nature of Science
• There are dozens of observable patterns that we
have discussed.
• Scientists must take ethics into consideration
when experimenting.
• Human subjects must have informed consent of
possible risks of participation and animals must
be treated humanely.
• Everyone contributes to the development of
science.
• The better the technology, the better our
understanding of the world around us.
F
H
G
I
A Mealworms prefer pears.
B Mealworms prefer apples
C Mealworms do not prefer
apples or pears
D Mealworms do not go
near apples or pears.