A Framework for Setting the Optimal Price
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Transcript A Framework for Setting the Optimal Price
We Lose Money on Every Sale,
But We Make It Up on Volume:
Generating Association Profits
With Effective Pricing
AICPA Interchange 2000: July 21
Kevin Whorton
Director of Retail Programs
National Association of Chain Drug Stores, Inc.
General Manager, NACDS Services Corporation
1
Program Outline
I.
Overview of Pricing Techniques/Tactics
II.
Framework for Setting Optimal Price
III. Vignettes and Cautionary Tales
2
I: Overview of Pricing
Techniques and Tactics
3
Pricing Objectives
Will drive strategies and techniques:
Maximize profit/financial surplus
Cost recovery
Maximize market size
Social equity
4
Pricing Strategies
Cost-oriented: based on markup/target
return on investment
Market penetration: low introductory price
Build acceptance, forestall competition
Market skimming: where market will bear
No foreseeable competition
Competitive price: defensive, matching, or
maintaining guaranteed low price
Prestige price: intentional high/establish
value
5
Common Pricing Techniques
Cost-plus pricing: adding markup to achieve
defined margin
Demand-oriented pricing: consumer need
sets price; price level varies with demand
Line pricing: price set for individual items,
relative to other items within the line/brand
Price discrimination: offer multiple prices
within distinct markets/distribution channels
Other: price points, loss leader, promo
pricing
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Price Setting
Existing services
Qualitative research
Quantitative methods--contingent
valuation
Tradeoff (conjoint) modeling
Overall review of practices
New services
Price testing
Bundled/unbundled products
7
Pricing By Service Category
Services Under Development
Marketing involvement during product
development process:
Define ideal product
Determine its attributes
Forecast success of product with a variety
of price points/strategies (measure
opportunity cost)
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Which Problems Apply to You
Too much/too little price variety in product line
Over-consistent pricing across categories with
different costs: associates, students, international
Internal resistance to hikes: “not business
decision”
Not bundled well with discounts for other services
Price level inconsistent with perceived value
Constant dues level over time, despite changes in
services/components of membership
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Potential Solutions
Varying solutions and potential returns
Direct changes in base dues
Bundling with products/premium membership
New categories (e.g. inst./multiple
memberships)
Multiple-year and discounted memberships
Changing price for categories with higher/lower
fulfillment costs (international, students)
Each change needs systematic review/evaluation
similar to new product development model 10
Communication
Make case for direct price changes…
Marshal evidence of over/underpricing
Address underlying issues (e.g., cost allocations)
Build internal/external understanding/acceptance
... or indirect price changes
Increase benefits, member discounts, premium
giveaways, member-only services (if overpriced)
Unbundle benefits, lower member discounts, create
premium level (if underpriced)
Continue to pursue a long-term strategy to change
direct prices
11
Implementation
To succeed, maximize return on price changes
Communicate findings internally
Forecast results, re-evaluate effectiveness
Communicate to external audiences
The sales force — chapters, recruiters
Current customers — catalog, renewals
Prospects — promotional materials
Position change as increased market responsiveness
Establish precedent: ensure pricing is a marketing
decision
12
Applications: Membership
Typical scheme:
Annual charge, no installments
Primary membership: often political/by-laws
Line pricing for other categories
No volume discounts
Strategy for changes: budget-balancing
Technique is cost-based
Full, not incremental cost
13
Application: Member Dues
Identify pricing strategy/technique used
Determine if strategy is sub-optimal
Retention (by category) vs. benchmarks
Exit surveys: frequency of value/cost as a reason
Satisfaction ratings based on “value for price
paid”
Qualitative research, current members
Competitive scan/market penetration
Use file analysis: total members by company, site
Positioning: “primary” or “secondary” affiliation
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Application: Exhibit Fees
Far greater latitude: multiple attendees
Split registrant fees from space rental
History rules: working within budgets
Competitor intelligence
Potential for value-added: pre-show lists, travel
costs, all factored into budgets
Annual packages: ads + exhibitor fees
Willingness to trade certainty for higher price tag
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Application: Sponsorships
Typical scheme:
Full, not incremental cost
Based on perceived WTP or need for specific
program
Often linked to giving/donor relations
Altruistic motives vs. market access
Pricing the sponsor “ask”
• Identify market’s value to potential sponsor
• Extensive use of add-ons
• Specific deadlines for offers/auction to drive prices build-in
exclusivity for high profile
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• Avoid frequent use of tiers
Application: Certifications
Cost-plus pricing: Full cost vs variable cost:
packaging and recordkeeping
Externalities: ‘lift’ for all education
Product line: spinoffs, distance learning
Perceived value--new clients/higher income
Adjustments if problem signs (attrition rates)
Importance of lifetime value
Pricing for first and subsequent years
Pricing and penetration: elite/prestige (low) or
democratic/requisite credential (high)
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II: A Framework for Setting
the Optimal Price
18
Assumptions
You price to generate a profit
There is a direct relationship between
price and demand
Cost is only one element used to establish
the final price
Price is used as a basis for determining a
product’s value
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Pricing Floor and Ceiling
Your costs set the
floor
The marketplace sets
the ceiling
There is a range of
acceptable prices:
in theory, only one is
optimal
1
1
1
0
0
Ceiling
Price
Range
Cost
0
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Components of Pricing Process
Pricing constraints and objectives
Demand, revenue, and elasticity
Cost, volume, and profit relationships
Pricing strategies
Factors in setting the specific price
Special adjustments
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Pricing Objectives
Specify pricing goals that reflect your
organization’s strategic goals
Profit: long-run, current, ROI
Sales: total revenue, unit sales
Market share
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Constraints
Determine the demand
Associations occupy niches/defined market
Look at competition: assns and commercial
Is product/service truly unique?
Is there an expected price?
Anticipate the competitive reaction
Who are your competitors?
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Constraints (cont.)
Establish universe size market share
Is the market large enough to generate
adequate sales?
Is the universe stable? Growing or shrinking?
Determine the cost of producing and
marketing the product or service
Production, marketing, fulfillment, overhead
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Other Pricing Constraints
Newness of product: stage in the product life
cycle
Single product vs. product line
Cost of changing prices and the time period
they apply
The competitive marketplace (monopoly vs.
competitive)
Competitor’s prices
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Demand Curve Factors
Consumer tastes
Price and availability of other products
(preference set)
Consumer income
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Typical Demand Curve
3,000
Quantity
2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
0
$0
$50
$100
$125
$150
$200
$250
Price
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Revenue Curve
Total Revenue
$200,000
$150,000
$100,000
$50,000
$0
0
500
1,000 1,250 1,500 2,000 2,500
Quantity
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Price Elasticity and Demand
There is a relationship between the
quantity demanded and price.
Elasticity is the % change in quantity
demanded relative to the % change in price.
Price elasticity of demand (E) is:
(Initial quantity demanded / New quantity demanded) /
Initial quantity demanded
(E) = _________________________________________
(Initial price - New price) / Initial price
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What does this mean?
Demand is elastic when a small price increase
produces a larger percentage decrease in
quantity demanded. (Price elasticity > 1)
Demand is inelastic when a small price increase
produces a smaller percentage decrease in
quantity demanded. (Price elasticity < 1)
Unit demand elasticity- percentage change in
price produces an identical change in quantity
demanded
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Factors Affecting Elasticity
The greater the number of substitutes, the
greater the elasticity
Products and services considered to be
necessities are price inelastic
Items that require large cash outlays compared
to disposable income are price elastic
One way to measure elasticity is through yearto-year purchasing
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Cost, Volume, and
Profit Relationships
Pricing Terms
Marginal Analysis
Break-even Analysis
Estimating Demand
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Terms
Profit = Total revenue -Total cost
Total cost (TC) = total production, marketing,
and sales expense.
Fixed costs (FC) do not change with the quantity sold
(rent, salaries)
Variable costs (VC) vary directly with the quantity sold
Variable cost expressed on a per unit basis it
called unit variable cost.
Marginal cost (MC) is change in unit cost for
producing and marketing one additional unit.
33
Marginal Analysis for
Profit Maximization
To maximize profit
sell and promote your products/services as
long as the revenue received from the sale of
an additional product is greater than the cost
to produce and market that product.
In theory, you want to operate up to the
point where MR = MC
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Break-even Analysis
Analyze the relationship between total
revenue and total cost to determine
profitability at various levels of output.
The break-even point (BEP) is the point
where total revenue = total cost.
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Calculating Break-even Point
Fixed Cost_______
BEPq = Unit price - Unit variable cost
Answers question: How many units do I need
to sell to break even?
$55,000___
BEPq = $35 - ($10 + $ 8) = 3235.3
Question: # units can we realistically sell?
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Developing the
Break-even Chart
Where P = $35
UVC = $18 (printing, distribution, storage)
FC = $55,000 (development,
marketing, salaries, OH)
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Break-even Chart
Q
TR
TVC
TC
(P X Q)
(UVC X Q)
(FC X TVC)
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
$35,000
$70,000
$105,000
$140,000
$175,000
$210,000
$18,000
$36,000
$54,000
$72,000
$90,000
$108,000
$73,000
$91,000
$109,000
$127,000
$145,000
$163,000
Profit
ROI
($38,000)
($21,000)
($4,000)
$13,000 10.2%
$30,000 20.7%
$47,000 28.8%
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Break-even Graph
$250
$200
TR
$150
TC
$100
FC
$50
$0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
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Estimating Demand
Universe/market share
Example: Membership category (N=250)
31,000 certified technicians
15,000 take exam in 1999 (12,000 pass)
Approximately 1/3 are in the health-system
market niche
Min. universe = .33 x 43,000 = 14,190
Mkt share estimate = 10% or 1,419
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Estimating Demand (cont.)
Previous sales/similar products
Review sales of earlier editions
What external factors are affecting demand?
Examine sales of similar products
External research: sales of competitive
products
Internal research: ask customers if they’d
buy
41
Summary
Establish a pricing policy
Set your parameters and goals
Make assumptions
Use the tools
Draw on your experience
42
III: Vignettes and
Cautionary Tales
43
Sponsorship: Effect On
Pricing the Subsidized Item
Grant in hand to subsidize program
development
“Net cost” of development is zero
Developer wants to price low
What do you do?
44
Sponsorship’s Effect (2)
If net cost=0, should you give it away?
Social objective of pricing strategies
Publicize your role as good guys
OR…Price where the market will bear
If you can make money, price based on gross
cost
Product is a sponsorship magnet
Yet pricing should reflect perceived value
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“The Fait Accompli”
What do you do when the price is
established and the “go/no go” is GO
Illustrated: Spinoff of an established product
Power resides with the product developer
Your own analysis yields profit = 0
Probable outcome: profit < 0
What do you do?
46
“The Fait Accompli” (2)
De-emphasize the product
May be self fulfilling prophecy
Free/low-cost marketing options
Wait until the next round
Work on fixing problem for the next edition
Price-test the release: forecast results
Prepare for markdowns in promotion plan
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New Product Release
Product rollout begins in six months
Your charge: develop pre-pub and rollout
communications and pricing strategies
Marketing has autonomy over discounts,
some control over rollout price
How do you determine pricing?
48
New Product Release (2)
Pre-pub allows some flexibility in price
testing (validate your research)
Know your doubling day from product
history: drive your forecast
Don’t pick at random, test price points
Pre-pub to price-sensitive segments
Consumer expectations/rollout price turnoff
Commit to using the pre-pub learning to
adjust actual rollout price
49
Rapid Price Escalation
Underpriced good, with some uncertainty
Decision-maker sees product far underpriced
Sound basis on market data
Objective: raise to market price, turn cash
calf into a cash cow
What do you do?
50
Rapid Price Escalation (2)
One fell swoop
Understand elasticity
Avoid disrupting established buying patterns:
will people stay in the habit of buying?
Budget-based decisions: don’t outrun
real willingness to pay
Communicate: one adjustment year
Incremental multi-year: gradual, less pain
51
Product Line Extension
Successful product needs milking
Decision: expand product line
May be segmenting content for a niche
May be compiling discrete products or issues
into a single volume
What do you consider in pricing?
52
Product Line Extension (2)
Considerations?
How much do components or single
attributes contribute to value/how many are
in product
Perceived value affected by media or content
What is the niche-specific demand
Are you being a cannibal?
“Fit” with long-term pricing strategy
Other approaches: bundling, repackaging
53
Desperation Marketing
Got a dog to unload
May be low-pickup conference,
underperforming book or product
“Fire sale,” on-site discounts are options
Must sunset the product/no questions asked
No current pricing process in place
What do you do?
54
Desperation Marketing (2)
Time to ignore cost data
How to exhaust inventory gracefully
Avoid “aging” your catalog’s perception
Avoid hurting image: product and other lines
Avoid future expectations of a white sale
Giveaways: perform the social function
People perceive value from pricing
Understand why it tanked!!!
55
Membership = Bundle
Association membership is under review
Each represents a bundle of goods
Board wants to re-evaluate what members
get for their dues, and/or dues level
Service mix and membership categories last
changed in the Truman Administration
What input do you provide?
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Membership = Bundle (2)
Evaluate value of components in bundle
Use a “time-neutral” perspective
Ignore history and competition for now
Integrate with an overall financial model
Loss leader, competition, or primary revenue
source
Attribute all indirect member-caused
revenue:
journal ads, exhibit revenue, sales
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