Transcript kottakanth15_ppt_ch16

Anthropology
Appreciating Human Diversity
Fifteenth Edition
Conrad Phillip Kottak
University of Michigan
McGraw-Hill
© 2013 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved.
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MAKING A LIVING
16-2
MAKING A LIVING
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Adaptive Strategies
Foraging
Cultivation
Pastoralism
Modes of Production
Economizing and Maximization
Distribution, Exchange
Potlatching
16-3
MAKING A LIVING
• What are the major adaptive strategies found
in nonindustrial societies?
• What is an economy, and what is
economizing behavior?
• What principles regulate the exchange of
goods and services in various societies?
16-4
ADAPTIVE STRATEGIES
• The advent of food production fueled major
changes in human life
• Adaptive strategy: means of making a living;
productive system
• Cohen: typology of societies
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Foraging
Horticulture
Agriculture
Pastoralism
Industrialism
16-5
FORAGING
• Foraging economies relied on nature to make
their living
• All foragers rely on natural resources for
subsistence, rather than controlling plant and
animal reproduction
• Foraging has survived mainly in environments
that posed major obstacles to food production
16-6
SAN: THEN AND NOW
• Dobe Ju/’hoansi San are in southern Africa
surrounded by waterless belt
• An estimated 100,000 San live in poverty on
society’s fringes
• Botswana relocated the San Bushmen outside
their ancestral territory to create a wildlife area
• The high court reversed the order but most
prevented from returning
16-7
CORRELATES OF FORAGING
• Correlation: association or covariation
between two or more variables
• Typically, foraging groups are mobile
• People who subsist by hunting, gathering, and
fishing often live in band-organized societies
• Band: basic social unit among foragers; fewer
than 100 people; may split seasonally
16-8
CORRELATES OF FORAGING
• Mobility typical characteristic of foraging
societies
• People could join any band to which they had
kinship or marriage links
• Fictive kinship: personal relationships are
modeled on kinship
• All human societies have some kind of division of
labor based on gender
• All foragers make social distinctions based on age
16-9
RECAP 16.1: Foragers Then and Now
16-10
Figure 16.1: Worldwide Distribution
of Recent Hunter-Gatherers
16-11
CULTIVATION
• Horticulture: cultivation that makes intensive
use of none of the factors of production: land,
labor, capital, and machinery
• Horticulturists use simple tools
• Fields not permanently cultivated
• Slash-and-burn cultivation
• Shifting cultivation
16-12
CULTIVATION
• Agriculture: cultivation that requires more
labor than horticulture does; uses land
intensively and continuously
• Domesticated animals
• Many agriculturalists use animals as a means of
production
• Irrigation
• Cultivate same plot year after year
• Capital investment that increases in value
• Ifugao
16-13
Figure 16.2 Location of the Ifugao
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CULTIVATION
• Terracing
• The labor necessary to build and maintain a
system of terraces is great
• Costs and benefits of agriculture
• Long-term yield per area is far greater and more
dependable than horticulture
• Agricultural societies tend to be more densely
populated than horticultural ones
16-15
THE CULTIVATION CONTINUUM
• Cultivation continuum: intermediate
economies that combine horticultural and
agricultural features
• Horticulture always uses a fallow period;
agriculture does not
• Main form of cultivation in parts of Africa,
Southeast Asia, Pacific Islands, Mexico, Central
America, and South American tropical forest
16-16
INTENSIFICATION: PEOPLE AND
THE ENVIRONMENT
• Intensive cultivators are sedentary
• Agricultural economies grow increasingly
specialized
• One or a few caloric staples
• Animals that are raised
• Agricultural economies pose a series of
regulatory issues that central governments
often have arisen to solve
16-17
PASTORALISM
• Pastoralists: herders whose activities focus
on such domesticated animals as cattle,
sheep, goats, camels, and yaks
• Attempt to protect their animals and to ensure
reproduction in return for food and other products
• Typically make use of herds for food
16-18
PASTORALISM
• Before the Industrial Revolution, pastoralism
was almost totally confined to Old World
• Pastoral nomadism: members of pastoral
society follow herd throughout the year
• Transhumance: part of group moves with herd;
most stay in home village
16-19
RECAP 16.2: Yehudi Cohen’s Adaptive
Strategies (Economic Typology) Summarized
16-20
MODES OF PRODUCTION
• Economy: system for the production,
distribution, and consumption of resources
• Mode of production: way of organizing
production; “set of social relations through
which labor is deployed to wrest energy from
nature using tools, skills, organization, and
knowledge” (Wolf, 1982)
16-21
PRODUCTION IN
NONINDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES
• Division of economic labor
related to age and gender
is a cultural universal, but
specific tasks assigned to
each sex and age vary
• Betsilio of Madagascar
have two stages of teamwork
in rice cultivation
16-22
MEANS OF PRODUCTION
• Means, or factors, of production include
land, labor, technology, and capital
• Land
• Less permanent among foragers than for food
producers
• Among food producers, the rights to means of
production also come through kinship and
marriage
16-23
MODES OF PRODUCTION
• Labor, tools, and specialization
• In nonindustrial societies, access to land and
labor comes through social links
• Yanomami of Venezuela and Brazil
16-24
Figure 16.3 Location of the Yanomami
16-25
ALIENATION IN INDUSTRIAL
ECONOMIES
• When factory workers produce for sale and
for their employer’s profit, rather than for their
own use, they may become alienated from
the items they make
• A case of industrial alienation:
• Malaysia—one response to factory relations of
production has been spirit possession
• Ong: spirit possession expresses anguish at, and
resistance to, capitalist relations of production
16-26
ECONOMIZING AND
MAXIMIZATION
• How are production, distribution, and
consumption organized in different societies?
• What motivates people in different cultures
to produce, distribute or exchange, and
consume?
• Anthropologists view economic systems and
motivations in a cross-cultural perspective
16-27
ECONOMIZING AND
MAXIMIZATION
• Economizing: rational allocation of scarce
means (or resources) to alternative ends
• Classical economic theory assumes wants are
infinite and means are limited
16-28
ALTERNATIVE ENDS
• People in various
societies put their
scarce resources
toward building
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Subsistence fund
Replacement fund
Social fund
Ceremonial fund
16-29
ALTERNATIVE ENDS
• Peasants: small-scale agriculturalists who
live in nonindustrial states and have rent fund
obligations
• Live in states—organized societies
• Produce food without elaborate technology
• Pay rent to landlords
16-30
DISTRIBUTION, EXCHANGE
• Polanyi: three principles orienting exchanges:
market principle, redistribution, reciprocity
• Society usually dominated by one
• Dominant principle of exchange is the one that
allocates means of production
DISTRIBUTION EXCHANGE
16-31
THE MARKET PRINCIPLE
• Market principle: buying, selling, and
valuation are based on supply and demand
• Bargaining is characteristic
16-32
REDISTRIBUTION
• Redistribution: flow of goods into a center,
then back out; characteristic of chiefdoms
16-33
RECIPROCITY
• Reciprocity: exchange between social
equals, normally related by kinship, marriage,
or close personal ties
• Reciprocity continuum: running from generalized
reciprocity (closely related/deferred return) to
negative reciprocity (strangers/immediate return)
• Generalized reciprocity: exchanges among
closely related individuals
16-34
RECIPROCITY
• Balanced reciprocity: midpoint on
reciprocity continuum, between generalized
and negative reciprocity
• Negative reciprocity: potentially hostile
exchanges among strangers
• Ju/’hoansi San
16-35
Figure 16.4: Location of the San, Including Ju/’hoansi
16-36
COEXISTENCE OF EXCHANGE
PRINCIPLES
• In North America, the market principle
governs most exchanges
• Also redistribution and generalized reciprocity
• Balanced reciprocity would be out of place in a
foraging band
16-37
POTLATCHING
• Potlatch: festive event within regional
exchange system among tribes of North
Pacific Coast of North America
• Some tribes still practice the potlatch
• Potlatches traditionally gave away food, blankets,
pieces of copper, or other items
16-38
POTLATCHING
• If the profit motive is universal, how does one
explain the potlatch, in which wealth is given
away?
• Suttles and Vayda: potlatch is cultural adaptation
to alternating periods of local abundance and
shortage
• Potlatching also served to prevent the
development of socioeconomic stratification,
a system of social classes
16-39
Figure 16.5: Location of Potlatching Groups
16-40