Transcript Slides Lecture 2

Methodological Perspectives
from Anthropology
Dr.Zubeeda Quraishy
Dept of Informatics
University of Oslo
1
Objective of this session is to..
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introduce students to the concepts of
anthropological field techniques and how to
construct an effective research design.
develop a workable methodology to
adequately address your research design and
to write qualitative research.
learn to think analytically, to grasp the range
of human adaptability, and to reinforce
tolerance for the differences found in today's
interdependent world.
2
Writing Qualitative Research
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Wolcott(1990)points out that many qualitative
researchers make the mistake of leaving the writing
up until the end i.e. until they have got “the story”
figured out.
Wolcott makes the point that ‘writing is thinking’.
Writing actually helps a researcher to think straight
and to figure out what the story should be.
The motto of every qualitative researcher should be
to start writing as soon as possible.
3
Research methods
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Research methods provide important
clue regarding the most relevant
strategy to be used (Yin, 1994).
Case settings influences the choice of a
relevant and rigorous approach.
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Research Approach
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Is a strategy of inquiry which moves
from the underlying assumptions to
research design and data collection.
The way data is collected is influenced
by the choice of research approach.
5
Different Research Approaches
in Anthropology
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Quantitative &
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Qualitative
6
Quantitative Research Methods
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Quantitative methods which are now well accepted in
the social sciences include:
Survey methods
Laboratory experiments,
Formal methods (e.g. econometrics) and
Numerical methods such as mathematical modeling
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(Refer the book on field methods (spiral book)
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7
What is Qualitative Research?
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Qualitative research can be
characterized as the attempt to obtain
an in-depth understanding of the
meanings and 'definitions of the
situation' presented by informants,
rather than the production of a
quantitative 'measurement' of their
characteristics or behavior (Wainwright,
1997)
8
Qualitative Research
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“Any kind of research that produces
findings not arrived at by means of
statistical procedures or other
means of quantification.” (Strauss
and Corbin (1990, pp. 17-18)
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Quantifying the Qualitative Data
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Qualitative interviewing techniques-’Triad Sorting’ are
employed by some researchers to gather textual data
that are subsequently coded and analyzed
statistically thus quantifying the qualitative data.
(Bernard 1988; Trotter and Potter 1993; Weller and
Romney 1988)
The results of such analyses generate an
understanding of cognitive categories, or how people
perceive the relationship among categories in some
domain, such as HIV risk behaviors.
(contd..)
10
Quantifying the Qualitative Data
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The goal of understanding a
phenomenon from the point of
view of the participants and its
particular social and institutional
context is largely lost when textual
data are quantified (Kaplan and
Maxwell, 1994)
11
Triangulation
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Combination of one or more research methods has been
referred as ‘Triangulation’.
 (Ethnographers should have more than one way to show how
we arrived at the conclusions of our research; field notes,
interviews, and site documents which work together to support
our claims. This is called triangulation ).
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Good discussions of triangulation can be found in Gable (1994), Kaplan
and Duchon (1988), Lee (1991), Mingers (2001) and Ragin (1987) . An
empirical example of the use of triangulation is Markus' (1994) paper
on electronic mail.
12
Other distinctions in research
methods..
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Objective versus Subjective (Burrell and
Morgan, 1979)
Nomothetic(discovery of general laws) Vs
Idiographic (uniqueness of each particular situation)
Emic (insider) Vs Etic (outsider)
perspective.
(For a fuller discussion see Luthans and Davis (1982), and
Morey and Luthans (1984).
The list goes on.
13
Philosophical Perspectives
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All research (whether quantitative or
qualitative) is based on some underlying
assumptions about what constitutes 'valid'
research and which research methods are
appropriate. In order to conduct and/or
evaluate qualitative research, it is therefore
important to know what these (sometimes
hidden) assumptions are.
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Epistemology
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Most pertinent philosophical
assumptions are those which relate to
the underlying epistemology which
guides the research.
Epistemology refers to the assumptions
about knowledge and how it can be
obtained (for a fuller discussion, see
Hirschheim, 1992).
15
Assumptions that underlie the
Anthropological Research
Perspective
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First, it is assumed that people are symbol
constructing and spend a great deal of time
consciously and unconsciously interpreting
what the symbols & behaviors created by
themselves and others mean
Anthropologist gain knowledge of how people
think and behave through involvement in
their daily social milieus.
Finally, it is assumed that people’s
perceptions and behaviors are related in
some way to context at varying levels of
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specificity.
Qualitative Research Methods
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Originally developed in the Social Sciences.
Have a specific strength in helping to
understand people as well as social and
cultural phenomena (Avison, Lau, Myers &
Nielsen,1999).
Used for describing the participant’s views of
processes and collecting subjective accounts
of phenomena.
Used for analysis of the data, finding
connections & relationships, the influence of
the context and different perspectives toward17
phenomena.
Benefits of Using
Anthropological Methods
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Through anthropological methods, it is
possible to gain an understanding of
the meanings people attribute to their
actions as well as delineate the wider
socio-political and ecological context in
which their behaviors take place (Ex,
drug use and HIV risk behaviors)
contd..
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(Contd..) Benefits of using
Anthropological methods
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Such an understanding is crucial not
only for designing and evaluating
questionnaires but also for designing
locally and culturally sensitive
intervention and prevention programs
as well as for formulating meaningful
research questions (Carlson et al.
1994a)
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Distinguishing Features of
Anthropological Research
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Concerned with exploring and interpreting social
phenomena (tries to understand how people make
sense of their world).
Studies people in their own territory & in their natural
settings.
Gives insight concerning questions in terms of ‘who’,
’Where’, ’How’ & ’Why’ .
Anthropologists have the expertise of studying
complex human behavior (HIV, drug abuse etc)
Employs different methods
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(contd..) Anthropological
Research
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“..often the only means available for
gathering sensitive and valid data from
otherwise elusive populations (ex, substance
abusers, commercial sex workers etc.” Wiebel
(1990, p. 5)
Anthropological research is necessary not
only to design questionnaires but also to
formulate meaningful research questions,
conduct appropriate statistical analyses, and
interpret the results (Werner and Schoepfle
(1987a) )
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Anthropologists…
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Study things in their natural settings,
attempting to make sense of, or interpret,
phenomena in terms of the meanings people
bring to them.
Involve a variety of empirical materials- case
study, personal experience, introspective, life
story, interview, observational, historical,
interactional, and visual texts-that describe
routine and problematic moments and
meanings in individuals’ lives ( Denzin and
Lincoln, 1994b,p.2).
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To be an anthropologist…
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One needs to explore, investigate, roam, and be
nomadic.
Give up any thoughts about sending someone else
out to do the work.
Forget having someone else do the
transcription. The nuances are what count, and you
can not delegate that work. This is not something
you can do impersonally to avoid your own bias.
Bias is your locator, your internal detective, but only
after you self-reflect and figure out your bias, so you
can move ahead of it. This is why it is important to
keep a field diary, to record your dreams, your
insights, your conjecture, those hypotheses that
comes from doing the grounded field work.
23
REQUIREMENTS FOR
ANTHROPOLOGICAL RESEARCH
PERSPECTIVE
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“Anthropological research requires the
investigator to spend considerable time
with the group under study, to develop
contacts with key respondents, to learn
the language, norms, values, and
attitudes of this group, and to build
trust relation-ships”.(Sterk-Elifson (1993, p.
163)
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Contd..
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Equal time must be allotted for
data processing and analysis.
Anthropological research methods
were developed to enable researchers
to study social and cultural phenomena.
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Some of the Research
Methods in Anthropology are…
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Action Research
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Case Study Research
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Ethnography
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Grounded Theory
26
Action Research
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‘Action research aims to contribute both
to the practical concerns of people in an
immediate problematic situation and to
the goals of social science by joint
collaboration within a mutually
acceptable ethical framework’
(Rapoport, 1970, p. 499).
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Contd.. Action Research
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Action research is concerned to enlarge the stock of
knowledge of the social science community.
It is this aspect of action research that distinguishes it
from applied social science, where the goal is simply
to apply social scientific knowledge but not to add to
the body of knowledge.
Action research has been accepted as a valid
research method in applied fields such as
organization development and education (e.g. see
the Special Issue on action research in Human
Relations, Vol. 46, No. 2, 1993, and Kemmis and
McTaggart, 1988).
In recent years action research is undertaken in
Information Systems research.
28
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ICIS 1999 Panel on "IS Action Research: Can We Serve Two Masters?"
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A brief overview of action research is the article by Susman and Evered
(1988).
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The article by Baskerville and Wood-Harper (1996) provides a good
introduction to how action research might be used by IS researchers.
An empirical example of action research is the article by Ytterstad et al.
(1996).
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Investigating Information Systems with Action Research
References on Action Research
MIS Quarterly Special Issue on Action Research in Information
Systems has now been published. See Baskerville and Myers (2004)
29
Case Study Research
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The term “Case Study" has multiple meanings. It can be used to
describe a unit of analysis (e.g. a case study of a particular
organisation) or to describe a research method.
Case study research is the most common qualitative method
used in information systems (Orlikowski and Baroudi, 1991;
Alavi and Carlson, 1992).
Yin (2002) defines the scope of a case study as follows:
A case study is an empirical inquiry that:
investigates a phenomenon within its real-life context, especially
when
The boundaries between phenomenon and context are not
clearly evident (Yin 2002
30
Case Study Research
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Case study research method is
particularly well-suited to IS
research, since the object of our
discipline is the study of
information systems in
organizations, and "interest has
shifted to organizational rather
than technical issues" (Benbasat et
31
Ethnography
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Ethnographic research comes purely from the
discipline of social and cultural anthropology
where an ethnographer is required to spend a
significant amount of time in the field &
conduct an in-depth research.
Ethnographers immerse themselves in the
lives of the people they study (Lewis 1985, p.
380) and seek to place the phenomena
studied in their social and cultural context.
32
According to Anthropologists…
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Ethnographic research is not objective
but an interpretive endeavor.
Not all field sites are "foreign" for
ethnographers in the same way.
Ethnography is not replicable research.
Ethnography is not based on large
numbers of cases (like quantitative
research).
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Cultural Relativism
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there is no one standpoint from which
to judge all cultures and ways of being
in the world. Because of this,
anthropologists are conditioned to see
various perspectives as "positioned"
(Abu-Lughod 1991), and the things that
we learn in the field as "partial truths"
(Clifford 1986)
34
Cultural and other barriers to
Field Research
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Cultural stereo Information Systems as Social
systems : Implications for Developing
Countries bytypes(subcultural groups-drug
users, CSWs etc
Minority group cultural barrier-unless we have
good rapport or contacts many of the ethnic
groups will not let the researchers study the
group.
Organised networks-heroin group
35
Ethnographers…
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Ethnographers engage in participant observation in
order to gain insight into cultural practices and
phenomena.
These insights develop over time and through
repeated analysis of many aspects of our field sites.
Ethnographers are expected to be "reflexive"
To facilitate this process, ethnographers must learn
how to take useful and reliable notes regarding the
details of life in their research contexts.
These field notes will constitute a major part of the
data on which later conclusions will be based.
36
Field notes
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Field notes should be written as soon as
possible after leaving the field site,
immediately if possible.
We are all very likely to forget important
details unless we write them down very
quickly.
Since this may be very time-consuming,
students should plan to leave a block of time
for writing just after leaving the research
context.
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Field Notes
a list of points that should be included in all field notes:
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Date, time, and place of observation
Specific facts, numbers, details of what happens at
the site
Sensory impressions: sights, sounds, textures,
smells, tastes
Personal responses to the fact of recording fieldnotes
Specific words, phrases, summaries of
conversations, and insider language
Questions about people or behaviors at the site for
future investigation
Page numbers to help keep observations in order
(Chiseri-Strater and Sunstein (1997)
38
Ethnography as a Method in
IS
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Ethnography has now become more widely
used in the study of information systems in
organizations, from the study of the
development of information systems to the
study of aspects of information technology
management (Hughes et. al, 1992;
Orlikowski, 1991; Preston, 1991) (Davies,
1991; Davies and Nielsen, 1992).
39
Grounded Theory
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Grounded theory is a research method that
seeks to develop theory that is grounded in
data systematically gathered and analyzed.
According to Martin and Turner (1986),
grounded theory is "an inductive theory
discovery methodology that allows the
researcher to develop a theoretical account of
the general features of a topic while
simultaneously grounding the account in
empirical observations or data."
40
(Contd..) Grounded Theory
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The major difference between grounded
theory and other methods is its specific
approach to theory development grounded theory suggests that there
should be a continuous interplay
between data collection and analysis.
41
(Contd..) Grounded Theory
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Grounded theory approaches are
becoming increasingly common in the
IS research literature because the
method is extremely useful in
developing context-based, processoriented descriptions and explanations
of the phenomenon (see, for example,
Orlikowski, 1993).
42
Techniques for Collecting
Qualitative Data
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Field Work
Active & Passive Participation
Observation: Participant and Non participant
observation
Interviews: Formal & Informal
Structured & Unstructured
Interview Guide
Focus Group Interviews
Questionnaire
Analysis of documents
43
(Contd..) Techniques for
collecting Qualitative Data
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Narrative Approach
Story telling
Life History method
Action Research
Researchers impressions and reactions.
Narrative & Metaphor
44
Narrative & Metaphor
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Narrative & metaphor play an important
role in all types of thinking and social
practice.
In IS the focus has mostly been on
understanding language,
communication and meaning among
systems developers and organizational
members.
45
Participant Observation
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Participant observation is a dialectic process
that cycles back and forth between assuming
a role of a participant and the role of an
observer.
Guides ethnographic fieldwork
Participant observation techniques require
professional training and the allocation of the
lead time necessary to develop rapport with
the people being studied
46
Developing Rapport
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Developing Rapport means developing and
maintaining complementary relation-ships with the
people.
Rapport means trust and communication as well as
commitment and skills in interpersonal relations. The
flexibility to develop rapport is an advantage of
qualitative methods and an important factor in
assuring the validity of the data.
Building relationships can contribute to the execution
of qualitative interviews in more controlled settings.
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Interviewing Techniques
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Ranging from informal to semi structured and life
histories
Open ended interview conversation is allowed to flow
freely in reference to a particular topic.
Free flowing conversation plays an important role in
gaining familiarity with the way people perceive and
express various dimensions of their lives.
In a more structured interview a set of pre designed
discussion topics are offered for a person’s response.
Open – ended interviewing serves as a means of
determining how people talk about or perceive
various aspects of their lives and categorize things.
Generally used for creating more focused set of
questions that pertain to particular research problem
48
Sources of Data Collection in
Anthropology
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Primary: Data which is unpublished and
gather from the people or organisation
directly.
Field work notes and the experience of living
is an important source of data.
Secondary : refers to any materials (books,
articles etc.) which have been previously
published.
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Motivation for doing
Anthropological Research
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Anthropological research methods
are designed to help researchers
understand people and the social
and cultural contexts within which
they live
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Field Work
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Each research approach employs various
methods for collecting & generating empirical
data.
Either one or a combination of several
techniques can be used in collection and
generation of empirical data.
One or more data sources can be used for
collecting data (informants, newspapers,
diaries, memos, documents, reports etc).
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DATA COLLECTION
STRATEGIES
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Ethnographic Mapping
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Participant Observation
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In-depth Interviews
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Focus Groups Discussions
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Ethnographic Mapping
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is intended to help investigators understand the social
organization of behaviors under study in the targeted
neighborhood.
Its goals are:
A. To provide information needed to rank candidate districts
B. To identify and cultivate contacts with social networks in each
district
C. To help establish sample quotas according to such
characteristics as drug of primary use, sex, and race/ethnicity
and
D. To develop an in-depth understanding of major drug-using
networks in terms of drug preferences, needle-use practices,
sexual preferences and practices, and knowledge and beliefs
about HIV/AIDS
53
In-depth Interviews
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In- depth and open-ended individual interviews offer
the researcher a vital flexibility and allows for the
identification of issues and questions not yet in the
information bank developed by the research. The
formulation of new questions and routes of inquiry is
an important strength of qualitative research.
The researcher’s skills, attitudes, and experiences are
key to engaging hard-to-reach individuals to
participate in research studies particularly in in-depth
interviews.
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What is Focus Group?
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are sources of highly detailed, specific group
data obtained on a focused research topic or
question.
Focus group interviews are interactive events
guided by a skilled moderator (interviewer)
whose ability to stimulate participation, guide
discussion, and probe directly affects both
success in meeting research objectives and
the quality of the data obtained.
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Focus Groups
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are used to gain an understanding of the
attitudes, beliefs, and perceptions of a
specific group or population, which are then
communicated to policymakers and program
planners. Focus groups are different from
individual ethnographic or other group
interviews because of their composition and
focus.
56
Focus Groups
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Focus groups are dynamic and process driven and,
unlike other group interviews, attempt to maintain
the interaction predominantly within the group rather
than between the participating individuals and the
interviewer/moderator.
Focus groups can provide insights into the meaning
of the behaviors and events within the research
domain as seen by a particular group or population.
The sharing of personal experiences, feelings, and
opinions by members of the group interacting
together provides for a clearer understanding of the
range of these experiences, feelings, and perceptions
in the larger group they represent. This range of
possibilities is, of course, important in identifying
extremes as well as mainstream information
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(HIV/AIDS).
FOCUS GROUPS
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Focus groups also provide an excellent mechanism
for the exploration of the meaning of words and the
use of language. The resulting insights are useful for
increasing the effectiveness and validity of both
qualitative and quantitative research
instruments.
This is notable in their application to marginalized,
hard-to reach populations (drug addicts), which often
have their own sub cultural vernacular and norms
governing communication.
58
FGDs can be used to..
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support and inform data analysis by
explaining inconsistencies in research
findings either by providing additional
depth and detail on a particular issue or
by bringing the unexplained variation or
inconsistency directly to the group for
its examination and analysis.
59
Advantages in using Focus
Groups Discussions
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Tend to empower individuals to express their
ideas by providing peer group support and
reassurance particularly if there is a feeling of
status differential between the researcher and
the interviewee.
Tend to empower individuals to express their
ideas by providing peer group support and
reassurance.
60
Focus Groups can be used
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To determine appropriate ways of
communicating in a particular social context.
Help researchers and service providers who
utilize research data to understand the
context and environment of the target
population, the norms of communication, and
the expectations placed on their behavior and
presentation of self in the interview
interaction itself.
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FGDs
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It is inappropriate to generalize from focus group
findings to the more general as they are not based
upon a representative sample population.
It also is inappropriate to use focus groups when
statistical data are needed. While focus group data
can be quantified, the numbers produced are
descriptive of the groups only, and are not applicable
to the general population.
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Increasing the number of sessions to improve
coverage and representativeness achieves neither
and rarely affects the utility of the data. Conducting
too many sessions suggests a basic
misunderstanding of the purpose of focus groups and
qualitative research in general.
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Focus Group Discussions
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Important technique for identifying the range of reactions to
particular information, material activities, or program
interventions.
Useful for exploring possible reasons for satisfaction and
dissatisfaction and the underlying norms and values upon which
costs and benefits as well as likes and dislikes are assessed.
Focus groups can provide directions and insights to guide and
inform evaluation activities, but should not provide definitive
conclusions about success or failure, appropriateness, or
effectiveness.
The purpose of focus groups differs from other group
interactions in which the goal is to provide recommendations,
reach consensus, or make decisions among alternatives
(Krueger 1994). Brainstorming techniques seem similar to focus
group interactions, but they are much more directed.
63
FGDs can be used…
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at a midpoint in the research to examine unexplained
variation or to confirm initial findings.
Can be used to monitor the research process itself by
providing feedback from individuals and from groups
of interviewers and supervisory personnel.
Valuable after the completion of preliminary data
collection on a particular research topic and a given
community or population.
Useful at all stages of data analysis to provide
explanation, depth, and detail and to serve as
another resource for cross-validation of data collected
by other methods.
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Type of data produced by the
FGDs
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FGDs data are generally in the form of audio tapes,
notes, and transcripts of the sessions. Field notes,
information from screening instruments, notes from
the debriefing, and observer/assistant field notes are
also sources of data.
Such data often include information on the
environment or context, perceptions, beliefs,
opinions, linguistic preferences, and interpretations of
behaviors or events central to the research questions.
These data are particularly important in research on
hard-to-reach populations engaged in group-specific
and context-specific behaviors and language because
they facilitate communication and the understanding
of the context and motivations that determine
behavior and that can influence behavior change. 65
Focus Group Discussion
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as a data collection technique
Professional expertise and skills to facilitate focus groups are
required to ensure methodological rigor and the validity of data.
Moderators of focus groups in behavioral and health research
need to have sufficient grounding in research and interviewing
skills as well as group process in order to be effective
moderators.
Practice and experience, however, are the most important
factors in becoming an effective moderator.
Training programs should take into account the educational and
skill levels of potential moderators and tailor the instruction and
training exercises to be responsive to individual needs and to
the needs of the research itself.
66
Contd..) Focus Group Discussion
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Focus group sessions have great potential in
understanding complex behaviors such as HIV/AIDS.
Focus groups can provide data important to the
development of research instruments, prevention
education materials, and public health interventions.
Because of the nature of the group format, focus
groups are also uniquely effective in obtaining
information from hard-to-reach populations who are
traditionally difficult to interview.
Focus groups, increase the researcher’s ability to understand
unique cases and situations rather than providing
generalizability, as do quantitative methods
67
Requirement for conducting
FGDs
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Researchers need to negotiate and
decide the characteristics of the
participants that will yield information
required for meeting the research
objectives.
68
Characteristics of the Group
participants
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Gender
Differences in status and hierarchy
among participants
Risk factors and specific behaviors
Ethnicity
Size of the group
69
Characteristics of a Moderator
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A nonjudgmental attitude,
A clearly projected interest in the group and the topics,
Sincerity and openness,
Comfort with sensitive topics,
A sense of humor, and
basic knowledge of the target population and significant
knowledge of the research topic.
Gender is often a factor to consider regardless of other qualities
and attributes. No matter how relaxed, sincere, and direct, a
moderator of the opposite gender will have an effect on the
discussion, especially when gender is, in itself, one of the
factors to be explored
70
Moderating the Session
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In any type of group, the moderator is
the key to assuring that the discussion
flows smoothly and that the research
objectives for the session are met.
Moderators must create a relaxed and
thoughtful atmosphere, present ground
rules for the session, and set the tone
for the discussion.
71
FGDs demand that…
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Confidentiality is maintained of the participants
Analysis and reporting – data is person-intensive and
time consuming( tapes, verbatim transcripts, field
notes, screening instruments, moderator notes, and
observer or debriefing notes).
Reports are most useful when they are well
organized, succinct, and direct. Carefully selected
quotes should be included as examples of vernacular,
to clarify meaning, and to illustrate statements and
conclusions.
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
Good discussions of anthropological
techniques for data collection can be
found in Pelto and Pelto( )Denzin and
Lincoln (1994), Miles and Huberman
(1984), Rubin and Rubin (1995) and
Silverman (1993).
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