Transcript Test Review BIOLOGY

Biology Review
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Click on the Microscope Icon that is entitled “Science” at the top left hand corner of the
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On this page you will see the general breakdown of the End Of Coarse Test (EOCT).
Biochemistry
• 4 organic compounds:
– Proteins:
• made up of amino acids.
• Control all chemical reactions in the body.
• Enzymes: proteins that speed up the rate of a chemical reaction.
– Carbohydrates: examples are starch and sugar.
• Building block monosaccarides
• Provide cell with energy
– Lipids: examples are fats
• Insulate the body and serve as long term energy reserve.
• Make up of a glycerol and 3 fatty acid chains
– Nucleic Acids: examples are DNA and RNA
• The genetic code for life.
• Basic building block is called nucleotide (sugar, phosphate, nitrogen base)
Characteristics of Life
• Living things…
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Are made of cells
Reproduce
Are based on a universal genetic code
Grow and develop
Obtain and use materials for energy
Respond to their environment
Maintain stable internal conditions (Homeostasis)
Change over time
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Cells
Eukaryote – has a nucleus and organelles (Protist, fungi, plant, animal
cells)
Prokaryote – NO nucleus or membrane bound organelles (Ex. Bacteria)
Animal cells vs. Plant cells
– Plant cell has cell wall and chloroplast
– Animal has lysosome
– Cell Parts and Functions:
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Nucleus- control center of cell
Cell Wall- protects plant cell
Cell membrane- allows materials to move in and out of cell
Cytoplasm- holds organelles in place in the cell
Endoplasmic Reticulum- contains ribosomes, transportation system of the cell
Ribosomes- makes proteins
Golgi Body- organizes and packages materials for cell
Mitochondria- provides energy for cell
Vacuole- stores materials for cell
Chloroplast- site of protein synthesis in plant cell
Lysosome- breaks down food in animal cell
Chromosomes- found in nucleus, contain genetic information
Cell Theory
– All living things made of cells
– Cells are basic unit of structure and function of living things
– New cells are produced from living cells
Cell Processes
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Diffusion
– Movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration across a membrane
– Passive transport (requires no energy)
Osmosis
– Diffusion of water across a membrane
– Passive transport
Facilitated Diffusion
– Diffusion of glucose (large molecule) across a membrane
– Passive transport
Active Transport
– Movement from a low concentration to high concentration (against
the flow)
– Requires energy
Cell Processes
• Endocytosis
– Cell membrane engulfs particle to bring it
inside
– Active transport
• Exocytosis
– Cell membrane sends out particle to get rid of
it
– Active transport
Photosynthesis
• 6CO2 + 6H2O  C6H12O6 + 6O2
• Takes place in PLANTS (chloroplasts)
– Light Dependent Reaction (in Grana)
• Requires light energy
• NADP and H join to form NADPH
• Oxygen gas given off as a byproduct
– Light Independent Reaction (in Stroma)
• ATP + NADPH join, using CO2
• Sugars (C6H12O6) given off as a byproduct
Cellular Respiration
• Process of breaking down food molecules to release
energy
• C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O
– Opposite of photosynthesis
• 3 main stages
– Glycolosis - C6H12O6 broken in half to make pyruvic acid
• If oxygen present – goes to Krebs Cycle
• If no oxygen present – goes to Fermentation
– Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle) – takes out oxygen and
pyruvic acid turned into CO2; enzymes combine hydrogen
and oxygen to form H2O
– Fermentation
• Alcoholic fermentation – yeasts and other microorganisms
use pyruvic acid to make CO2 (makes bread rise)
• Lactic Acid fermentation – muscle cells convert pyruvic acid
to lactic acid
Cell Division
• Mitosis
– Division of somatic cells (all cells in the body EXCEPT gametes
(sperm/eggs)
– Interphase: chromosomes appear
– Prophase: chromosomes condense  chromatin; pair up to
make sister chromatids
– Metaphase: chromatids lined up in center (metaphase plate)
– Anaphase: chromatids separate and pull to opposite ends of
cells
– Telophase: chromosomes uncondense; nucleus forms around
them
– Cytokenesis: cell splits into two daughter cells
• End Result
– Two new daughter cells are formed.
– Each daughter cell has same number of chromosomes as
parent cell
Cell Division
• Meiosis
– Division of gametes (sperm and eggs)
– Same process as mitosis, but it does 2 cycles
• Interphase 1 – Prophase 1 – Metaphase 1 – Anaphase 1 –
Telophase 1 – Cytokenesis
– 2 daughter cells formed with 2 copies of every chromosome –
They go on to divide again
• Interphase 2 – Prophase 2 – Metaphase 2 – Anaphase 2 –
Telophase 2 – Cytokenesis
– Now 4 daughter cells are formed (2 cells from cycle 1 have
divided again)
– Each daughter cell now has 1 copy of every chromosome (will
join with other chromosomes during fertilization)
• End Result
–4 daughter cells are formed.
- Each cell has half the number of chromosomes as the
parent.
DNA
• Deoxyribonucleic Acid- double stranded.
• Found inside of nucleus in cells
• Cells read DNA code sequences and translate
them using the sequences of 4 bases
– Adenine, Guanine, Thymine, Cytosine
– A-T G-C
• The way these bases pair up determines what
proteins are made
RNA
• Ribonucleic Acid- single stranded
• Messenger RNA – mRNA – reads DNA “code”
and carries it to ribosome
• Ribosomal RNA – rRNA – makes up the
ribosome where proteins are
made
• Transfer RNA – tRNA – transfers each amino
acid needed for protein synthesis as coded by
mRNA from DNA
• No Thymine (T)  Uracil (U)
– A-U
G-C
Genetics
• The scientific study of heredity (passing of traits from one
generation to the next)
• Dominant Allele: the trait that always shows physically and is
represented by a CAPITAL LETTER.
– Example: BB or Bb
• Recessive Allele: only shows if the dominant allele is not
present and is represented by a lowercase letter.
– Example: bb
• Punnett Square: diagram showing gene combinations that
might result from a genetic cross.
• Homozygous: organism with 2 identical alleles (also called
true breeding)
– Example: TT or tt
• Heterozygous: organism with 2 different alleles (also called
hybrid)
– Example: Tt
Genetics
• Phenotype: physical characteristic of the
organism.
– Example: Tall plant
• Genotype: genetic makeup of the organism.
– Example: Tt, TT, tt
• Incomplete Dominance: one allele is not
dominant over another.
– Example: Red flower is crossed with white flower to
produce a pink flower.
Genetics
• Codominance: both alleles of the genes
contribute to the phenotype of the organism.
– Example: Chicken with black feathers crossed
with white feathered chicken appears speckled
with black and white feathers.
• Polygenic Traits: trait controlled by 2 or
more genes that shows a wider range of
phenotypes.
– Example: range of skin color in humans.
• Gene Map: diagram showing the relative
locations of each known gene on a
particular chromosome.
Ecology
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Study of interactions among organisms and their environment
Abiotic factors – not living (water, air)
Biotic factors – living (animals, plants)
Levels of organization (smallest to largest)
– Individual Species (can breed & produce offspring)
– Population (same species in the same area)
– Community (different populations in the same area)
– Ecosystem (all organisms in a particular place – biotic only)
– Biome (group of ecosystems with same climate)
– Biosphere (all parts of earth – abiotic and biotic)
Heterotrophs/Consumers – cannot make their own food (must
eat something else) (humans)
Autotrophs/Producers – make their own food (plants)
Food web- overlapping food chains
Biomass- total amount of living tissue at each level of a food
chain. Highest amount of biomass is at producer level.
Ecology
• Relationships between organisms
– Mutualism – both benefit
• Bees and flowers (bees get nectar from flower, flower
gets pollination done)
– Commensalism – one benefits and other is not
harmed or benefited
• Whales and barnacles (barnacles live on whales and
eat little organisms – whale not helped or harmed)
– Parasitism – one benefits one harmed
• Humans and tapeworms (tapeworm lives in intestines
and gets nutrients that are supposed to go to human’s
body – human suffers from malnutrition)
Ecology
• Biomes:
– Tropical rain forest
• Hot, humid, lots of rain, lots of plants and animals
• Found in South America, SE Asia, Southern India, NE Australia
(along equator)
– Deciduous forest
• Warm year round, rainy/dry seasons, rich soils
• Found in Africa, Central America, Mexico, India, Australia, tropical
islands
– Savanna (grasslands)
• Warm, seasonal rain, isolated shrubs and trees (picture the setting of
The Lion King)
• Found in East Africa, Southern Brazil, Northern Australia
– Desert
• Low/no rain, variable temperatures, soils have lots of minerals but no
nutrients (therefore, rare plant growth)
• Found in Africa, Middle East, U.S., Mexico, South America, Australia
– Tiaga
• Long,/cold winters, mild summers, moderate rain, high humidity
• Found in North America (Canada and Alaska), Asia, northern Europe
Ecology
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Biomes (continued)
– Grassland
• Warm/hot summers, lush grasses (fire and cold resistant)
• Found in central Asia, North America, Australia, Europe
– Chaparral
• Hot/dry summers, wet winters, thin soils, evergreen shrubs and trees
• Western coasts of N. America and S. America, areas around the
Mediterranean Sea, South Africa, Australia
– Temperate Forest (Alpine)
• Cold to moderate winters, warm summers, year round rain, fertile soils
• Coniferous trees (produce cones), shrubs, deciduous trees
• Found in Eastern U.S., SE Canada, most of Europe, Japan, China, Australia
– Northwestern Coniferous Forest
• Mild temps, lots of rain during fall/winter/spring, cool/dry summer
• Found in NW U.S., SW Canada (basically all along the coast of Northern
California to Alaska)
– Tundra
• Permafrost (permanently frozen), strong winds, low rain
• North America (northern Canada, Alaska), Asia, and Europe (towards North
Pole)
Classification
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Taxonomy – process of classifying organisms into
similar categories (based on structure and function)
7 levels of classification (largest to smallest)
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Kingdom•
6 kingdoms (Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae,
Animalia)
– Phylum
– Class
– Order
– Family
– Genus
– Species- 2 species that can interbreed and reproduce
Scientific name is the genus and the species name put together.
Example: Canis lupus (common name is wolf)
Evolution
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Natural Selection
– “survival of the fittest”
– Those organisms who are better adapted to live in their environments will
survive, others less adapted will die off
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Mutations
– Change in the sequence of DNA, creates variation in gene pool
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Variation
– Differences among a population due to mutations and other members
coming in from surrounding areas
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Gene Shuffling
– Genes shuffle around during the process of gamete formation, changes
the combinations possible during reproduction
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Immigration
– New members of population move into area from outside areas – brings
in new genes
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Emigration
– Members of population leave to go to a different area – takes genes to a
new area
Bacteria and Viruses
• Prokaryotes - bacteria
• Single celled organisms with no nucleus
• Autotrophs (can make their own food) OR
Heterotrophs (cannot make their own food)
• Bacteria belong to kingdom Monera
• Viruses do not belong to a kingdom because they
do not share enough characteristics with anyone,
and they are not made of cells.
• Bacteria can be killed with antibiotics
• No treatment/cures for viruses
• Examples
– Bacteria – sinus infections, pink eye, pneumonia
– Viruses – HIV/AIDS, herpes, flu, measles, mumps, chicken
pox
Protists
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Kingdom protista
Eukaryote
Can be single celled or multicellular
Groups
– Animal like – animal characteristics
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Zooflagellates – have flagella, live in lakes and streams
Sarcodines – amoeba, move by pseudopods, found all over the Earth
Ciliates – paramecium, move by cilia, found in salt/fresh water
Sporozoans – cause diseases (malaria), found in animals as parasites
– Plant like - plant characteristics
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Euglenophytes – euglena, flagella, found in water
Dinoflagellates – red tide
Chrysophytes – green and golden algae
Diatoms – glass cases, used in toothpaste/road paint
Algae
– Red algae – deep in ocean
– Brown algae (kelp) - oceans
– Green algae – water and moist lands
– Fungus like – fungi characteristics
• Slime molds
• Water molds
Fungi
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Eukaryotes
Heterotrophs (cannot make their own food)
Have cell walls
Types
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Molds (cheese, bread)
Sac fungi
Club fungi (what we know as mushrooms)
Imperfect fungi (no known reproductive cycle)
Plants
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members of Kingdom Plantae
multicellular eukaryotes
cells walls made of cellulose
develop from multicellular embryos
carry out photosynthesis using green
pigments chlorophyll a and b
Plants
• 4 groups of plants classified by waterconducting tissues, seeds, flowers, and DNA
– Bryophytes- no vascular tissue!
• mosses and relatives
– Seedless Vascular Plants
• Club mosses, horsetails, ferns
– Gymnosperms
• Cycads, Ginkoes, Conifers (produce cones)
– Angiosperms
• Flowers
• Monocots - one seed leaf (cotyledon) in embryo
(examples are corn, wheat, lilies, orchids)
• Dicots - two seed leaves (examples are roses, tomatoes,
oaks)
Plants
• Life Cycles
– Annuals – planted yearly, complete life cycle in
one year
– Biennials – plant every other year, complete
life cycle in two years
– Perennials – plant once, long life cycle over
many years
Invertebrates
• No backbone
• Phylums
– Porifera (Sponges)
– Cnidaria (jelly fish, sea anemones)
– Platyhelminthes (flatworms – planaria)
– Nematoda (roundworms – parasites that
cause disease)
– Annelida (segmented worms – earthworms)
– Mollusca (squid, snail, slugs)
– Arthropods (crabs, lobster, spiders, insects)
– Echinoderms (starfish)
Vertebrates- have backbone
• Belong to Phylum Chordata:
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Nerve cord
Gills slits at some point in life
Tail that extends beyond anus at some point in life
Notochord- precursor to a backbone
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Agnatha- jawless fish
Chondrichthyes- sharks, stingrays
Osteichthyes- bony fish
Amphibia- frog, toad, salamander
Reptilia- turtle, snake, lizard, alligator, croc
Aves- birds
Mammals (Human, Bear)
Human Body
• Humans are most complex organisms
• Body systems
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Nervous (brain – controls body)
Skeletal (bones – movement)
Muscular (muscles – movement)
Integumentary (skin – protection)
Circulatory (heart – move materials around body)
Respiratory (lungs – air movement)
Digestive (stomach, etc. – digestion of food)
Excretory (kidneys – remove waste from body)
Endocrine (glands – regulate hormones)
Reproductive (testes/ovaries – reproduction)
Immune (many organs – protect against disease)