Transcript Science Study Notes 2011

Andrew Newbound
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Universe
◦ Huge space which contains all of the mater and
energy in existence
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Big Bang
◦ Theory that universe started in a big explosion from
a single point
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Steady state
◦ Theory that universe has always existed and matter
is being created all the time
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Cosmology
◦ Scientific study of theories about history & future of
universe
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Evidence
◦ Something that helps you form a conclusion
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Organisms
◦ Living things
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Darwin
◦ Created the theory of evolution and explained it
through the mechanism of natural selection
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Evolution
◦ Slow change in a population of living things over
many generations
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Comparative anatomy
◦ Study of similarities and differences in body
structures
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Fossils
◦ Remains/impressions of living things, mostly found
in rock
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Geographical Isolation
◦ Natural arrangements of plants and animals in
particular regions
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Homo sapiens
◦ Scientific term form modern humans
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Lamarck
◦ Suggested that evolution was caused by organisms
acquiring variations as they lived their lives, that
were then inherited by their offspring.
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Natural Selection
◦ When only organism best adapted to their
environment will survive and transmit their genes to
their offspring
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Hominid
◦ Early human-like fossils that walked upright on 2
legs and were more like humans than apes
© Andrew Newbound 2013
• Edwin Hubble
1929
1933
1948
• Red Shift
• Big Bang Theory
• Steady state theory
© Andrew Newbound 2013
• Robert Wilson & Arno ]]
1965
• Discovered microwave radiation in the
universe
• COBE
1992
• (Cosmic Background Radiation
Explorer)
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Astronomer
◦ Studies objects in space & info that can be derived
from them
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Cosmologist
◦ Studies theories about the universe
 Formation, history & future of universe
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Astronomers & Cosmologists
◦ Use telescopes + satellites + space probes
◦ Computer simulations & models
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Big Bang
◦ Before = nothing
◦ Started space, energy & time
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Origin of Universe Theory
For
Against
Big Bang
• Microwave energy
detected from Big
Bang (background
radiation)
• Red shift (universe
expanding)
• Ripples in universe
• Starting point
Steady state
• Starting point
explained
• Galaxies can’t be
made of nothing
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Universe runs out of energy
Stops expanding
Universe shrinks
Back to size of Big Bang
© Andrew Newbound 2013
•Aleksanr Oparin
1924
•Life originated in pools of water
•Stanley Miller
1953
•Showed how earth could have started
•Wrong quantities of gases
•Fred Hoyle
•Life originated in space
•Molecules that make up life – on comets & dust of nebulae
© Andrew Newbound 2013
• September
1969
• Meteorite flashed across sky in Victoria
• 4600 million years old
• ALH84001
1997
• Confirmed come from mars
• Microscopic patterns similar to bacteria colonies
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Bacteria sent into space
Spacecraft ‘STARDUST’ collected samples
from Comet Wild 2 in Jan 2004
Evidence for life on earth
◦ Fossils
 Oldest = bacteria
 Use hydrogen sulphide as an energy source
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Bacteria in harsh conditions
◦ Archaea
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Planetary scientists
◦ Bacteria that can live in other places in the solar
system
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Mars
◦ Most probable planet to support life
◦ Evidence for water has been detected
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Best place to find bacterial life
◦ Moon surrounding Jupitor/Saturn
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Born: England 1809
Loved nature studies
◦ Large collection of beetles
 Sorted them
◦ Catalogued the varieties of pigeons
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Studied to be a doctor
◦ Left when witnessed a child in surgery
 Screaming with pain
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Heard father & grandfather talk about
evolution
Unpaid naturalist on voyage around world
◦ Survey parts of world
◦ Draw biological specimens + descriptions of them
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South America
◦ Large fossil bones of extinct animals
 Resembled bones in living animals
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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After earthquake
◦ Mussels moved to 3m above high tide mark
◦ Showed environments change
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Galapagos island finches
◦ Each had different:
 Shaped beak
 Source of food
◦ Similar to each other
 Like once same type of bird
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Beetles
◦ Small differences between living things are
important
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Pigeons
◦ Living things change over time
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Finches
◦ Populations change over time and grow apart when
separated
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Findings
◦ Reluctant to publish
◦ Alfred Russel Wallace had same findings
◦ Darwin’s theory publicised & well known
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Study of similarities & differences in body
structures
Similarities
◦ Determine evolutionary relationships
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Limb adapted by evolution for use in different
environments
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Embryology
◦ Study of embryos
 All similar during early development
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Comparative anatomy
◦ Some bones can be used for different purposes
 Pentadacyl limb
◦ Bones that are not used may still be around
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Comparative embryology
◦ Common ancestors changed to form different species
◦ Split further along than embryos
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Comparative DNA sequencing
◦ Measuring how long ago 2 species were 1 species
◦ Similarities compared
 Humans & chimpanzees
 5-6 million years ago (98% similar)
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Fossils
◦ Minerals replaced by carbonates
◦ Impressions/casts
◦ Chemicals can’t break down
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Horse evolution using fossils
◦
◦
◦
◦
Come from N. America
Had 4 digits per limb
Changed to graze tough grasses
3rd digit’s nail = hoof
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Dating Fossils
◦ Position in layers of rock
 Law of superposition
◦ Potasium10  Argon40
 Older fossils up to 1,000,000 years ago
 Measure amounts of argon
◦ Carbon14 dating
 Ratio of carbon14 to carbon12
 50,000 years ago
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Bio-Geographical Distribution
◦ Ratites (flightless birds all related)
 Emu, Kiwi etc.
◦ Continental drift
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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All organisms contain chemicals that are
based primarily on carbon
DNA
Structural and chemical similarities between
things suggest relationships
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Study of fossils
Evidence of evolution because oldest fossils
are simples animals & plants
As rocks get younger the fossils get more
complex
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Australia has its own distinctive kinds of
living things
◦ E.g. waratah
◦ Endemic to Australia
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Explanations
◦ Begin as inferences
◦ Make hypothesis
◦ Produce theories
 Best scientific explanation at the time for the available
evidence
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Carbon Dating = Absolute Dating
◦ 1000s of years ago
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Relative dating
◦ Only tell whether fossil is older or younger
◦ Layer of rock found in
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Artificial selection
◦ Farmers selecting largest/strongest animals for
breeding
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Slight advantage
◦ More likely to survive
◦ Natural selection
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Slow
◦ Many generations
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E.g. Insect resistance to pesticides
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Use it or lose it
Acquired characteristics
WRONG
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Survival of the fittest
All individuals have different characteristics
(variations)
All individuals struggle to survive
◦ Find food, shelter and mates
◦ Avoid danger
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Some individuals born with variations help to
survive
◦ Survive best and reproduce to pass successful
variations onto offspring
◦ Population changes so that it has characteristics
that make it best suited to the environment
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Hominids
◦ Closer to humans than apes
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Pre-hominids
◦ Closer to apes than humans
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Humans different to other animals
◦ Large brain for reasoning & language
◦ Opposable thumb
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Incomplete fossil records of human evolution
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Austalopithecus
Homo habilis
Homo erectus
Homo Sapien
Cro-Magnon
man
Neanderthals
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Hominid fossil changes
◦
◦
◦
◦
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Brains grew
Face became vertical
Brow ridges rose
Teeth shrunk
Neanderthals & Cro Magnons
◦ Lived in caves
 Shelter & protection
 Preserved from elements
 Lots of fossils
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Super species
◦ Able to destroy all other living things on earth
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Topic 2
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Mass
◦ The amount of matter in something
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Weight
◦ The force of gravity pulling on a mass
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Force
◦ A push, pull or twist applied to an object
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Acceleration
◦ The rate at which an object changes its speed
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Net Force
◦ The directional sum of all forces acting on an object
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Friction
◦ A rubbing force that slows moving objects
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Distance
◦ How far it is between 2 points
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Speed
◦ How quickly an object is moving
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Time
◦ How long it takes between 2 events
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Average Speed
◦ The total distance travelled divided by the total time
taken
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Velocity
◦ Speed in a given direction
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Ticker timer
◦ A device that produces a series of dots on paper
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Inertia
◦ The tendency of an object to stay still or keep moving
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Momentum
◦ The product of mass and velocity
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Newton’s laws
◦ The 3 laws proposed by Sir Isaac Newton that describe
motion
© Andrew Newbound 2013
𝐷
𝑆=
𝑇
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Distance
◦ Measured with tape measure/trundle wheel
 Trundle wheel circumference = 1m
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Time
◦ Measured in seconds (s), minutes (min), hours (h),
days and weeks
 Usually measured in s for experiments
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Speed
◦ In car, measured in km/h
◦ In lab, measured in m/s (𝑚/𝑠 −1 )
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Velocity
◦ Important for ships at sea etc.
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Instantaneous speed
◦ Speed the moment you look at it
◦ Measured: Speedometer, laser/radar speed gun
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Average Speed
◦ Speed if same speed constantly over journey
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Average speed velocity, instantaneous velocity
◦ Same as speed but with distance also
© Andrew Newbound 2013
× 3.6
m/s
km/h
÷ 3.6
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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If go back to start, average velocity is 0
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Gradient tells speed
◦ Steeper
◦ Flat
◦ Straight line
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
= faster
= 0 (object not moving)
= speed not changing
Time along bottom
Distance along side
Scale must be constant
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Distance/time graph
500
450
Distance (m)
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
20
40
60
80
Time (s)
© Andrew Newbound 2013
100
120
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Easier studied if broken down
◦ Measure time taken to walk along segments of path
 Constant speed = same distance in same time
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Ticker timer
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
Measure time and distance together
Hits carbon paper at regular intervals
Dots close together
= slow speed
Dots consistently spaced = consistent speed
Moving apart
= accelerating
Need to know distance & time between dots
 Time = 0.02s (
1
𝑠)
50
◦ 1 dimension (forward & backward)
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Use video camera
◦ Use pause button on VCR to analyse motion
 If picture contains ruler + clock
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Flashing light
◦ Disco – motion appears jerky
 Photographed = multiple images of moving dancers
◦ Stroboscopic light
 Flashes at regular intervals
 Multiple images of moving object
 Multiflash photography
 Movement in 2 dimensions (up & down, left & right)
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Distance from start to finish
=
=
Number of gaps between dots =
1

50

× number of dots
Speed =
𝐷
𝑇
cm
m
=
s
=
/
=
m/s
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Distance from start to finish
=9.5 cm
=0.095m
Number of gaps between dots =7
1

50

× number of dots
Speed =
𝐷
𝑇
=0.14s
=0.095/0.14
=0.68m/s
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Vertical axis
= distance
Horizontal axis
= time
Straight line sloping upwards
◦ Motion at a constant speed
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Horizontal dine
◦ Stationary object w/ no motion
 Zero speed
 At rest
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Curved line sloping upwards
◦ Acceleration
© Andrew Newbound 2013
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
𝑎𝑣 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
time
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 − starting speed
𝑎𝑣 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
time
© Andrew Newbound 2013

If a car can go from 0km/h to 60km/h in 6s,
what is its acceleration?
60 − 0 𝑘𝑚/ℎ
=
6𝑠
60𝑘𝑚/ℎ
=
6𝑠
= 10𝑘𝑚/ℎ/𝑠
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Shows acceleration
◦ Slope of graph
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Horizontal
Down
Up
= constant speed
= decelerating
= accelerating
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Speed/time Graph
20
18
16
Speed (m/s)
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
120
240
Time (s)
© Andrew Newbound 2013
360
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Acceleration
◦ Change in motion over time
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Circular motion
◦ Changing direction but not speed
◦ Still accelerated
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Acceleration
◦ Increase in speed
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Deceleration
◦ Decrease in speed
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Jump from aeroplane
◦ Keep accelerating until hit terminal velocity
 Due to air resistance
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Car stopping at traffic lights
◦ Decelerates until hits 0 speed
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Satellite orbiting earth
◦ Constant speed but accelerating due to change in
direction
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Weightlessness
◦ No gravity
 E.g. being in space
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Jumping = better on moon
Running = better on earth
Acceleration = 𝑚/𝑠 2
◦
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑚/𝑠
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑠)
⇒
𝑚
𝑠
𝑠
⇒
𝑚
𝑠𝑠
⇒
𝑚
𝑠2
⇒ 𝑚/𝑠 2 OR 𝑚𝑠 −2
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Speed
◦ How fast something is moving
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Acceleration
◦ Going faster, slower or changing direction
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Data
◦ Information in numerical form

Graph
◦ Visual way of displaying data

Ticker timer
◦ Leaves dot on a paper tape to record motion
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Velocity
◦ Speed in a given direction
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Circular Motion
◦ Motion of an object round and round
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Harmonic
◦ Motion of an object going to and fro
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Pendulum
◦ Swinging object that can be used to measure time
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Weight
◦ Downwards force due to gravitational acceleration
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Gravity affects objects at the same rate
◦ Heavy stone, light stone fall at same time
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Moon’s gravity < earth’s gravity
◦ Can jump higher
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Gravity causes objects to accelerate towards
earth
Air resistance slows falling objects near earth
◦ Terminal velocity

Constant speed
◦ Same time to travel same distance
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Gravity is constant with/without air
◦ Objects would fall faster due to no terminal velocity
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Higher speed
◦ Shorter time to travel same distance

Fall faster & faster if jump from plane
◦ Until hit terminal velocity

Average speed
◦
𝑚
𝑠
× 3.6 = 𝑘𝑚/ℎ
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Closer together
= slower speed
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Farther apart
= faster speed

Moving apart
= accelerating
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Moving together
= decelerating
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Force
◦ Push/pull/twist
◦ Can change motion, shape of an object
◦ Measured in Newtons (N)
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Contact force
◦ Push/pull/twist through touching an object
◦ E.g. hammering a nail, lifting a book
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Weight force
◦ Movement caused by gravity
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Reaction force
◦ Pushes against your force
◦ Stops you from crashing through the floor
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Friction
◦
◦
◦
◦
Force that slows movement
Pushes against moving objects
Ice = low friction surface
Need to ride bike
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Mass
◦ Amount of matter inside an object
◦ Measured in kg
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Weight
◦ Downwards force
◦ Depends on your body’s mass + strength of gravity
◦ Measured in Newtons (N)
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Lift accelerates upward
◦ Floor pushes upwards
◦ Feet push harder against floor
◦ Extra weight
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Weightlessness
◦ Occurs when there is no gravity
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Neutron star = 10 million x mass
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Vector
◦ Arrow used to draw force
◦ Longer = more force
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Upwards
push of
road
Resistance
forces
Thrust
Weight
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Newton’s First Law of Motion states that an
object will remain at rest, or will not change
its speed or direction, unless it is acted upon
by an outside, unbalanced force.
Constant speed = balanced forces
Seatbelt
◦ Keeps passenger moving with vehicle
◦ Prevents law of ineria
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Newton's Second Law of Motion describes
how the mass of an object affects the way
that it moves when acted upon by one or
more forces.
Larger objects accelerate less rapidly than
smaller object acted upon with the same
force.
Inertia
◦ Property of object that makes them resist change
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Rocket accelerates
◦ Loses mass yet has same force

𝐹𝛼𝑎
◦ Acceleration is proportionate to force
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More mass = more inertia
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Net force
◦ Sum of forces acting upon it
◦ Taking into account their direction
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Same side +
Different –
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑘𝑔 × 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑚/𝑠 2 )
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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‘For every action there is an equal and
opposite reaction.’
OR ‘If one object pushes on another object,
then the other object pushes back with equal
force.’
Stand on floor
◦ Weight force (downwards)=upward force of floor
action
reaction

Unbalanced
◦ Move in dirrection
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Slippery floor
◦ Move foot, lower force reaction ∴ slip
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Moving in space
◦ Cylinders of compressed gas attached to space
suits
© Andrew Newbound 2013
𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 (𝑘𝑔. 𝑚/𝑠) = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑘𝑔) × 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦(𝑚/𝑠)
 More momentum = harder to stop
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Reducing number of accidents
Reducing injuries
Seatbelts
◦ Hold occupants in their seas
◦ Absorb inertia
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Headrest
◦ Reduce whiplash from inertia
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Crumple zone
◦ Crumples to absorb energy
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Air bags
◦ Absorb inertia & deceleration forces of occupants
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Anti-lock brake systems (ABS)
◦ Stop wheels from skidding
 Friction lost with road

Deep tread
◦ Maximum friction

Twice as fast = 4 times longer to stop
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Reaction time
◦ Time taken for driver to react to danger
◦ Moving from accelerator to the brake

Reaction distance
◦ Distance car travels during reaction time

Braking distance
◦ Distance taken for car to stop when brakes are
applied

Stopping distance
◦ Total distance
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Alcohol & fatigue
◦ Lower concentration
◦ Increase reaction
time
◦ Stop. Revive. Survive.

Law 1
◦ Seatbelts
◦ Headrests

Law 2
◦ Airbags
◦ Crumple zones

Law 3
◦ ABS
◦ Tire tread
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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2 cars crash at 80km/h
◦ = single car crashing into solid barrier
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

1
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑟 2
2
3x speed = 9x stopping distance
4x speed = 16x stopping distance
50km/h accident
◦ Dropped from a 3 storey building

100km/h accident
◦ Dropped from a 12 storey building
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Topic 3
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Alleles
◦ The alternative forms of each gene
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Chromosome
◦ A length of DNA, containing many genes

Dominant
◦ The one of a pair of opposite characters that
appears when both are inherited
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Gametes
◦ The sex cells – sperm and ova
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Genetics
◦ The study of inheritance and variation and the
factors controlling them

Genotype
◦ The genetic make-up of an individual

Heredity
◦ Passing on characteristics from one generation to
the next

Heterozygous
◦ Different alleles for a gene
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Homozygous
◦ 2 of the same alleles for a gene
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Meiosis
◦ Cell division resulting in daughter cells with half the
chromosome number of the parent cell. (makes the
sex cells)
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Mendel
◦ An Austrian monk who carried out experiments on
pea plants
◦ ‘The father of genetics
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Mitosis
◦ Cell division resulting in in 2 daughter cells each an
exact copy of the parent cell
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Mutation
◦ Results when a mistake is made in copying of DNA
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Phenotype
◦ How living things appear and function

Recessive
◦ Appearing in offspring only when not masked by a
dominant characteristic

Zygote
◦ The 1st cell of a new individual, formed when a sperm
fuses with the ova during fertilisation
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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All living things made of cells/product of cells
◦ Cell theory

Unicellular
◦ Only have 1 cell
◦ E.g. bacteria

Multicellular
◦ All familiar plants & animals
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Functions
Parts
• Take in substances
(assimilate)
• Nucleus
• Extract energy from food
• Cell membrane
• Excrete their wastes
• Grow
• Reproduce
• Respond to things
• Control centre
• Controls what gets
in/out
• Cytoplasm
• Liquid containing various
structures (organelles)
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Additions
• Chloroplasts
• Make food
• Cell wall
• Strengthens structure
• Vacuoles
• Store water & dissolved substances
• Smaller/none in animal cells
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Cells
Tissues
Organs
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Body
systems

All cells = same size
◦ Just diff quantity

Cells need body systems
◦ Need food, water & oxygen
 Delivered by body systems
© Andrew Newbound 2013
cytoplasm
© Andrew Newbound 2013
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Eyepiece lens
◦ Bends the light to make the object look bigger

Microscope tube
◦ Light travels through it to the eyepiece

Coarse focus & fine focus knobs
◦ Moves the lens up/down so that the object can be
seen clearly

Objective lens
◦ Can be changed so that the object can be magnified
more or less
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Stage
◦ Holds the slide with the object you are looking at in
place

Mirror
◦ Makes light bounce through the slide into the lens

Base
◦ Holds the microscope up
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Cell tissue e.g.
◦ Muscle, nerve, skin

Multi-cellular
◦ Large groups of cells which specialise

Cell membrane
◦ Outside of cell

Cytoplasm
◦
◦
◦
◦
Liquid inside cell
All except nucleus
Semi-transparent
Includes cytosol, various organelles
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Organelles
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦

Nucleus = most prominent
Mitochondria
Cytoskeleton
Ribosomes
Golgi complex
Lysomes
Nucleus
◦ Contains DNA & runs the cell
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Animal
Plant
Muscle cell
Epidermal cell
Muscle
Epidermis
Artery
Leaf
Circulatory System
Photosynthesis system
(leaves & stem)
Horse
Whole plant
© Andrew Newbound 2013


Cannot function without food & water
Correct temperature
◦ <0°C = cell stops functioning
 Water freezes

Respiration
◦ Burning of food w/ oxygen = energy
𝐹𝑂𝑂𝐷 + 𝑂𝑋𝑌𝐺𝐸𝑁
→ 𝐸𝑁𝐸𝑅𝐺𝑌 + 𝐶𝐴𝑅𝐵𝑂𝑁 𝐷𝐼𝑂𝑋𝐼𝐷𝐸 + 𝑊𝐴𝑇𝐸𝑅
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Energy is needed for
◦ Growth
◦ Reproduction
◦ Other functions
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Nucleus
◦ Contains DNA
◦ Control centre of cell

Nuclear membrane
◦ Surrounds the nucleus
◦ Lets in and out RNA
 Chemical copy of DNA
 Used to make protein

Cell membrane
◦ Controls entry and exit of chemicals
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Protoplasm
◦ All contents of cell

Cytoplasm
◦ All contents of cell except nucleus

Mitochondria
◦ Produces energy from food

Ribosomes
◦ Manufactures protein

Endoplasmic reticulum
◦ Moves products through the membrane
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Chloroplasts
◦ Contains chlorophyll
 Used for photosynthesis

Lysosomes
◦ Stores enzymes

Microfilaments/cytoskeleton
◦ Holds organelles in place

Vacuoles
◦ Stores food & minerals
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Nucleic acids
◦ DNA
 Deoxyribonucleic acid
 Stores coded instructions
 Double helix
 Watson and Crick
◦ RNA
 Ribonucleic acid
 Allows DNA to read coded instructions
◦ Generally located in nucleus
 Prokaryote
 It is located in an area of the cell
 Not in a membrane
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Nucleus
◦ Control centre

Nucleus=programmed by DNA
◦ Instructions
 For making all parts of cell
 Way cell behaves
 How carry out functions





Transmitting
Nerve impulse
Supplying energy
Contracting (muscle cells)
Carrying out photosynthesis
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Nuclear membrane’s pores
◦ Connect with endoplasmic reticulum
◦ Transport material in and out of nucleus

Nucleus need to be stained to be visible
under a microscope
© Andrew Newbound 2013



Shorted and coiled forms of DNA made when
the cell is about the divide
Only visible when stained
Human cell
◦ 23 pairs
◦ 46 individual
◦ Sex chromosomes
 Information for sexual characteristics
◦ Autosomes
 Non-sex chromosomes
© Andrew Newbound 2013


Process of sorting chromosomes into their
matched pairs
Important in investigating chromosomal
disorders
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Parent cell
1.
◦ Chromosomes appear as long thin threads
Chromosomes duplicate (chromatid pairs)
2.
◦ Become shorter and thicker
Chromatid pairs line up
3.
◦
4.
◦
◦
5.
◦
Along the equator of the cell
Chromatids separate
Move to opposite ends of cell
Starts to split into 2 cells
Daughter cells
Chromosomes become longer, thinner and less
distinct
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Homologous Pair
◦ Chromosomes exist in pairs in each body cell. One
pair from the mother, one pair from the father

Diploid
◦ 2 of each type of chromosome

Haploid
◦ Genetes (ova/sperm) contain only 1 of each type of
chromosome

Daughter cell
◦ Cell that is an exact copy of parent cell due to
MITOSIS
© Andrew Newbound 2013


Occurs in all body parts except sex cells
Multicellular organism purpose
◦ Growth and repair

Single-celled organism purpose
◦ Reproduction
© Andrew Newbound 2013



Very complex form of cell division
Begins same as mitosis
Occurs only in reproductive organisms
◦ Ovaries & testes in humans

After duplication of chromosomes
◦ From “half-cells”
 ½ of correct number of chromosomes for organism

Fertilisation
◦ Recombine to give correct no. of chromosomes
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Ova
23
Sperm
23
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Zygote
2 pairs of chromosomes are visible
Chromosomes double
1.
2.
◦
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Joined at centromere
Homologous pairs line up along equator
One of each pair moves to ends of cell
Chromosomes line up along equator
Chromosomes separate
+ move to ends of cell
Membranes form to produce 4 daughter
cells
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Made of many nucleotides
◦ Joined like links in a chain
◦ Made of sugar – deoxyribose + phosphoric acid
+ nitrogenous base

4 bases
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
Adenine
Thymine
Guanine
Cytosine
Order determines chemical code
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Copied
◦ Unzips along bases

RNA
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦

Like DNA
In every cell
Sugar = ribose
Base uracil instead of Thymine
Used to make copies of DNA
Genome
◦ Sequence of bases in the DNA/RNA of a living thing
◦ Human = 3100 million base pairs
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Gene
◦ Length of DNA
◦ Sequence of bases
 Code for 1 protein

Chromosome
◦ Length of genes

DNA
◦ Carries all instructions for cell to function
◦ Copied onto carrier molecule
 Messenger RNA
 M-RNA
© Andrew Newbound 2013

m-RNA
◦ Moves out through nuclear membrane
 Into cytoplasm of cell
◦ At ribosomes
 Translated into protein

Cells differentiate
◦ As multicellular organisms grow
◦ Specialise into different roles & tasks

Stem cells
◦ Cells which aren’t specialised
◦ Take on any task
© Andrew Newbound 2013

DNA
◦ The material that genes are made of
◦ Deoxyribonucleic acid

Gene
◦ Coded instructions that control our development &
body function

Chromosome
◦ Collections of genes
◦ Wound in double helix
◦ 23 from each parent
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Mutation
◦ Changes in the code of genes

Biotechnology
◦ The exploitation of biological processes for
industrial and other prospects

Clone
◦ Any organism with identical genes to their parent
organism
© Andrew Newbound 2013


Completely decode human blueprint
Fund laps to map genes of humans
◦ Physical + gene maps

Needs 15 years
◦ 3 billion bases in genome
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Pros
• Prevent genetic
conditions
• Testing genes early
on
Cons
• Insurance companies
could use info
• Introduction of new
genes could make
others worse
• Parents may not want
to know their condition
© Andrew Newbound 2013


Foods derived from genetically modified
organisms
E.g. soybean, corn, canola & cotton seed oil
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Advantages
•Lower price
•Reduces use of toxic
chemicals
Disadvantages
•Lasting effects on other
species
•Prevents wasted crops
•Natural immunity of insects
to GM plant changes
•Solve hunger
•Ownership of food
•Grow foods in different
climates
•Allergens
•Improve vitamin & mineral
content
•Faster growth
© Andrew Newbound 2013

1st mammal cloned from an adult cell
◦ 5th July 1996


Produced 6 lambs
2003
◦ Experienced progressive lung disease
+ severe arthritis
◦ Euthanized

Possible cause of short life
◦ Born at age of 6 years
◦ Only had 6 left
© Andrew Newbound 2013



Eliminate famine
Eliminate STIs
Social discrepancy
◦ Only few able to achieve
© Andrew Newbound 2013


Born Feb 2 1958
Discovered in 1990
◦ Treatment of cultivating skins from patient
= ineffective
 Requires 14-21 days
◦ Scaring likely to occur
 Burn wounds taking 21+ days to heal
◦ Scaring less likely to occur
 <10 days
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Skin sheets produced in 10 days
◦ More could be done

Spray on skin
◦ CellSpray
◦ Aerosol delivery system
◦ Apply cultivated skin to larger burn areas

Treat burns victims quicker
◦ Noticeable during Bali Bombings
© Andrew Newbound 2013

DNA
◦ Carries code for making proteins
 Form our bodies
 Made from proteins/products made by proteins
◦ Makes 20 diff amino acids
 3 bases code for each amino acid
+ start and stop

RNA/m-RNA
◦ Opposite to code for DNA
 Complementary
 Occurs during mitosis
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Genetic fingerprinting
◦ Using someone’s DNA to establish their identity
◦ Relies on enzymes
 Break DNA into short lengths
 Separated by Chroma typing
◦ Uses:
 Forensic work
 Confirming pedigree of valuable animals
 Checking genetic diversity of endangered animals
© Andrew Newbound 2013
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Spontaneous change in gene/chromosome
◦ Alteration in related characteristic

Increased rate due to mutagens
◦ Mutation-causing agents
◦ E.g.





X-rays
Gamma rays
Ultraviolet light
Range of chemicals including benzene
Responsible for genetic variation we see
today
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Discovered + made detailed investigations of
base principals of heredity
◦ How traits are inherited

Used pea plants
◦ Started w/ pure breeding

Hybrids
◦ Plants produced by crossing contrasting breeding
plants
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Dominant characteristic
◦ Strong form

Recessive characteristic
◦ Weak characteristic

Genes
◦ Small factors that controlled inheritance

Alles
◦ Diff forms of a gene
◦ E.g. purple and white colours in flowers
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Phenotype
◦ Appearance of new offspring

Genotype
◦ Combination of genes that determine a phenotype
© Andrew Newbound 2013
P generation
(Breeding Parents)
F1 generation
(first filial generation)
F2 generation
(2nd generation)
© Andrew Newbound 2013
S
s
s
Ss
ss
s
Ss
ss
Short hair hybrid dog (Ss) and long haired hybrid dog (ss) with
long hair being recessive
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Heterozygous
◦ Different alles

Homozygous
◦ Same alles
© Andrew Newbound 2013



23 pairs of chromosomes
100,000 diff genes
Linked genes
◦ Lying near each other on the same chromosome

Particular characteristic
◦ Determined by 1 dominant/recessive genes

Incomplete dominance
◦ Halfway between 2 genes
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Females
◦ 22 normal pairs of chromosomes
+ XX pair of sex chromosomes

Males
◦ 22 normal pairs of chromosomes
+ XY pair of sex chromosomes
© Andrew Newbound 2013
X
Y
X
XX
XY
X
XX
XY
Genotype:
XX : XY
50% : 50%
Phenotype: Female : Male
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Sex linked
◦ Genes found on the X and Y chromosome
 Y chromosome only has a few genes compared to the
X chromosome

Sex linked genetic diseases
◦ Caused by defective genes on X chromosome and
occur more frequently in males than females
 E.g. colour blindness
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Females
◦ Must contain 2, reate faulty genes to be colour
blind
 X`X`
◦ 1 faulty gene = carrier
 Dominant normal gene = proper vision

Males
◦ Need only one faulty gene to be colourblind
 X`Y
© Andrew Newbound 2013
X`
Y
X
XX`
XY
X
XX`
XY
Normal mother and a colour-blind father
Genotype
XX`:XY
Phenotype
Female Male
Carrier Normal
© Andrew Newbound 2013
X`
Y
X`
XX`
X`Y
X
XX`
XY
Normal mother and a colour-blind father
Genotype
Carrier
Phenotype
XX`:X`X`:XY:X`Y
Carrier: Colour blind: Normal: colour blind
Female:Female:Male:Male
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Topic 4
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Chemistry
◦ Scientific study of matter, its properties and its
interaction with other matter and energy

Model
◦ A representation of something based on a set of
assumptions, usually determined through
experiments

Charge
◦ The net effect of losing or gaining atoms
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Atom
◦ The smallest particle of an element

Element
◦ A substance made up of only 1 part of an atom

Molecule
◦ A group of atoms joined by bonds

Compound
◦ A group of different atoms that are joined in a fixed
ratio
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Periodic table
◦ The arrangement of elements into a table of groups
and periods

Electron shells
◦ The arrangement of electrons around the nucleus,
based on energy levels

Chemical formula
◦ A shorthand way of writing the name of an element
or compound
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Word equation
◦ Shows the changes that occur in a chemical reaction
using words

Chemical reaction
◦ Interactions in which atoms exchange or share
electrons forming new chemical compounds

Reactant
◦ The chemical compounds that combine to start a
chemical reaction

Products
◦ The chemical compounds that are produced during
a chemical reaction
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Element
Pure Substances
All Substances
Compound
Mixtures
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Element
◦ Cannot be broken down into simpler substances
◦ E.g. oxygen, argon and helium

Compound
◦ Pure substance that can be broken down
◦ E.g. sodium chloride
◦ Combined elements

Molecule
◦ Joined atoms
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Element
◦ Not made of anything except self
◦ 92 in nature
 Many too unstable

Can’t look at atoms
◦ Too small
◦ Everything we look with is made of atoms
◦ Indirect evidence
 How it affects what is around it
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Proton
◦ Define the element
◦ Positively charged
◦ In nucleus

Neutron
◦ No charge
◦ Create diff isotopes of element

Electron
◦ Negatively charged
◦ Orbiting nucleus
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Ion
◦ Charged atom
◦ Different number of protons to electrons

Isotype
◦ Atoms of element with different number of
neutrons

Nucleus
◦ Makes up 1/10,000 of space in atom
 Mostly empty space
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Rutherford
◦ Fired alpha particles at gold leaf
 2 protons + 2 neutrons
 Positive charge
 Expected to steer away & he would measure how much
they changed direction
 Actually didn’t change direction very much
 Many came back at him
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Niels Bohr
◦ Electrons occupy own orbitals

Colours in emission spectra
◦ Represent element giving off light
◦ Represents energy level

Outer shell
◦ Valance shell
◦ Occupied by high energy electrons
◦ Predicts properties & reactivity
© Andrew Newbound 2013

The Periodic Table
◦ Discovered by Mendeleev
◦ Patterns appeared periodically
◦ Gaps would be filled by elements
 Predicted properties
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Chemical symbol
◦ Unique 1-3 letters
◦ E.g. C=carbon, Cl=Chlorine

Atomic number
◦ Number of protons in 1 atom of element

Atomic weight
◦ Average weight of 1 atom of element
◦ Different isotopes
◦ Carbon = 12.0107
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Group
Number of electrons in outer shell
(Valence electrons)
Alkali metals
1
Alkali Earth metals
2
Noble gases
8
Halogens
7
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Period
◦ Row of elements

Number of electrons in shell
◦ 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙
2
×2
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Only 1 electron in
outer shell
•Very reactive
•Can be easily lost
•Wants to lose
•E.g. Lithium,
sodium
Needs 1 electron in
outer shell
•Strongly attracts
elements to fill
shell
•E.g. Iodine,
bromine, chlorine,
fluorine
© Andrew Newbound 2013

𝑆𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 + 𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑒 → 𝑠𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒
◦ Sodium donates 1 electron to chlorine
 Makes stable
◦ Compound
 Not mixture
 Not similar properties to reactants
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Ionic Bonding
•1 positive
(cation) & 1
negative
(anion)
Covalent
Bonding
•Share
electrons
•Not as reactive
© Andrew Newbound 2013

~ 400BC
◦ Democritus
 All substances consist of indestructible particles called
atoms

1808
◦ John Dalton
 All matter consisted of atoms
 Could not be divided
 Same element = alike
 Combined in whole number ratios
© Andrew Newbound 2013

1897
◦ Sir J.J Thomson
◦ Plumb pudding

1911
◦ Lord Rutherford
 Nuclear model for atom

1913
◦ Niels Bohr
 Electrons orbit at different energy levels

1932
◦ Sir James Chadwick
 Discovered neutrons
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Protons
Electrons
•+
•-
• In nucleus
• Orbit
nucleus
•
1
1800
of
proton
Neutrons
• Neither
+/• In nucleus
• About
same size
as proton
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Mass number
◦ No. of protons + neutrons
© Andrew Newbound 2013




Shows trends in properties between elements
Predict properties of elements
Most elements are solids
2 elements are liquid at room temp (25º)
◦ Some melt just above


11 elements gases at room temp
Heaviest natural = uranium
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Electrons
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
Determine chemical properties of element
Orbit in layers/shells
Same number as protons
2 fill 1st shell
8 fill 2nd shell
8 fill 3rd shell (1st 20 elements)
4th shell = partly filled
Jump to higher energy level when heated
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Electron configuration
◦ E.g. aluminium = 2.8.3
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Periodic table
◦ Chart showing all elements in order of atomic
number

Element
◦ Pure substances made of billions of same type of
atom

Compound
◦ Pure substance made of billions of same type of
molecule

Symbol
◦ Short way of writing chemical name
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Formula
◦ Way of writing type & ratio of atoms in a compound

Molecule
◦ Group of atoms joined in a fixed ratio

Electrolysis
◦ Using electricity to cause a chemical change

Decomposition
◦ Breakdown of compound into simpler substances

Proton
◦ Part of nucleus of atom that determines identity of atom

Electron
◦ Orbits nucleus of atom in energy shell
© Andrew Newbound 2013
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Chemical equation
◦ Shows more than word equation
◦ Ratios and types of atoms present

Balanced equation
◦ Shows even more
◦ Atoms only change positions
 Not created/destroyed

Not shown in chemical equation
◦ Energy changes
◦ Rate (speed) of reaction
◦ How reactants change into products
© Andrew Newbound 2013
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Salts
◦ Ionic compounds

Hydrochloric acid
◦ Chloride salts

Sulphuric acid
◦ Sulphates
© Andrew Newbound 2013
© Andrew Newbound 2013
© Andrew Newbound 2013
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Common acids
◦ Hydrochloric
◦ Sulphuric

Corrosive = harmful
◦ Damage/eat away material it touches
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Acid
Base
• Sour
• Bitter
• Corrosive
• Slippery
• Lose hydrogen in
water
• Eat away proteins
• Lose hydroxide in
water
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Indicator
◦ Changes colour in different conditions
 Acids & bases
◦ Litmus
 Red = acid
 Blue = base
◦ Water = neutral

Neutralisation reaction
◦ Acid + base
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Acids
Bases
• Citric acid
• Laundry powder
• Cola drinks
• Soap
• Milk
• Dishwashing
detergent
• Shampoo
• Oven cleaners
© Andrew Newbound 2013


Change of chemical partners
Cloudy mixture formed
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Soluble
• Sodium salts
Insoluble
• Sulfates
• Potassium salts
• Lead
• Ammonium salts
• Barium
• Most sulfates
• Most carbonates
• Calcium sulfate =
slightly soluble
• Sodium carbonates
• Potassium carbonate
• Ammonium carbonate
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Ionic
◦ Type of compound made from attraction of metal
and non-metal ions

Covalent
◦ Type of compound made from two non-metals that
share electrons

Ion
◦ An atom that has lost or gained electrons and now
carries an electrical charge
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Lattice
◦ Large array of atoms or ions that repeats itself
millions of times

Flame test
◦ Where the colours of the flame are used to identify
the types of atoms present

Equation
◦ A written record of the reactants and products in a
chemical reaction
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Limewater
◦ Reagent used to test for presence of carbon dioxide

Limestone
◦ Type of rock dissolved away by carbon dioxide gas
dissolved in rainwater

Precipitate
◦ An insoluble substance that forms when ions come
together

Suspension
◦ An insoluble substance shaken in water
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Element
◦ A pure substance made of only one type of atom

Decomposition
◦ When a group of atoms breaks apart into smaller
groups

Neutralisation
◦ Reaction where an acid and a base react and
destroy each other

Precipitate
◦ An insoluble substance made from the reaction of
any two soluble substances
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Covalent
◦ Groups of compounds formed from atoms of
non-metals

Ionic
◦ Groups of compounds formed from metal and
non-metal ions

Compound
◦ A pure substance made of 2 or more different
atoms joined in a fixed ratio
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Electron
◦ The outermost part of an atoms that can be lost or
gained in chemical reactions

Calcium carbonate
◦ The chemical compound present in lime, limestone,
caves, chalk and cement

Flame test
◦ Procedure where atoms are heated and the colours
they produce are recorded
© Andrew Newbound 2013




Hydrochloric acid
Sulfuric acid
Nitric acid
Phosphoric acid




chloride salts
sulfate salts
nitrate salts
phosphate salts
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Combustion (burning)
◦ E.g.
 𝑚𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑒 + 𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛 → 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 + 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

Corrosion
◦ E.g.
 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 + 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑑𝑒
→ 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑑𝑒 + 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Acids + metals
◦ 𝑀𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 + 𝐴𝑐𝑖𝑑 → 𝑆𝑎𝑙𝑡 + 𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛
◦ E.g.
 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑚 + ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑
→ 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒 + ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛

Acids + carbonates
◦ 𝐴𝑐𝑖𝑑 + 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 → 𝑆𝑎𝑙𝑡 + 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒
◦ E.g.
 𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 + 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒
→ 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑎𝑡𝑒 + 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Neutralisation
◦ Acids are neutralised (cancelled) bases
 pH 7 (neutral)
◦ 𝐴𝑐𝑖𝑑 + 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 → 𝑆𝑎𝑙𝑡 + 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
◦ E.g.
 𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 + 𝑠𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒
→ 𝑠𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒 + 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
© Andrew Newbound 2013
∆≡ ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡

Decomposition
◦ Single compound is broken down/decomposed
 Form 2≤ products
◦ E.g.
 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 → ∆→ 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 + 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒

Combination
◦ 2 elements combining to form a single compound
◦ E.g.
 𝐼𝑟𝑜𝑛 + 𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑢𝑟𝑒 → 𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑑𝑒
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Oxygen
◦ Glowing split will burst into flames in oxygen

Carbon dioxide
◦ Burning splint is put out
◦ Limewater turns milky

Hydrogen
◦ Pop test
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Moisture
◦ Often visible around top of a test tube when
heating a substance that contains water

Nitrogen dioxide
◦ Brown-orange coloured gas
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Topic 5
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Waves & radiation
◦ Carries energy
◦ Formed when particles are pushed from
normal/rest position
 Springs back to where they were
 Pushes on near particles

Sound waves
◦ Longitudinal wave motion
 Move to and fro in the same & opposite direction to
the wave
 Move in direction of wave & return to original position
 Energy is pushed
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Compressions
◦ Particles move closer together

Rarefactions
◦ Spread further apart

Longitudinal waves e.g.
◦ Sound waves
◦ Explosions
◦ Some earthquake waves

Force of explosion
◦ Pushes air away
 Transferred energy
 Strong enough to break windows
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Water waves
◦ Ripples travel outwards
◦ Transverse waves
 At right angles

Transverse waves
◦ Boat over water
◦ E.g.
 Water
 Pulse in spring
 Some earthquake waves
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Progressive waves
◦ Move energy from one place to another
◦ Moving forwards
◦ E.g. soundwaves

Standing waves
◦ Identical waves in opposite directions
◦ E.g. pulse in rubber tube

Travel through substance
◦ E.g. water, sound

Don’t need substance to travel through
◦ Electromagnetic
 Light, radio
© Andrew Newbound 2013
displacement
© Andrew Newbound 2013
rarefaction
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Crest
◦ Top of wave

Trough
◦ Bottom of wave

Amplitude
◦ Distance from normal position to crest/trough
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Displacement
◦ Distance from crest to trough

Wavelength
◦ Length of 1 wave
◦ Distance between 2 crests/2 troughs

Frequency
◦ Number of waves in a certain time
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Vibrating particles
◦ Carry the energy in a wave

Atoms
◦ Gain energy
◦ Absorb it
◦ Re-emit it

Travel at 3 × 108 m/s
◦ Differ in wavelength & frequency

No sharp boundaries between types of waves
◦ Overlap
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Gamma
• Shortest
wavelength
• Can go
through lead
and concrete
• Medical
X-Rays
Ultraviolet
• Affect
photographic
film
• Beyond violet
• Medical
• ‘Black light’
• Cause skin
cancer &
sunburn
• Sunbeds
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Light
•Visible light
Infrared
•Beside red light
•Heat radiation
•Passes through some
gases and glass
•Greenhouses
•Trap
•Heating
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Microwaves
Television & Radio
Waves
•Telecommunications
•Longest wavelength
•Make water
molecules in food
vibrate
•TV & radio signals
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Laser Light
◦ Surgery
 Intense heat
 Cut away unwanted tissues
 Burn off skin blemishes
◦ Shopping
 Read barcodes

Photonics
◦ Using light in electric appliances
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Satellites
◦
◦
◦
◦
cheaper than fixed lines
35880km above the earth
Energy comes from solar cells
Remote areas
 Receive all TV, radio and Internet services
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Imaging
◦ Being able to see where you cannot normally see
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Gamma radiation
• Patient given tiny
dose of radioactive
atoms
• Recorded through
gamma camera
• Different types for
diff parts of body
Ultrasound
• Very rapid
vibrations
• Not detected by our
ears
X-Rays
• More absorbed by
denser parts of
body
• Sound is reflected
(echo) off diff parts
inside body
• Show unborn
children, heart
function, blood
flow, treat kidney
stones & gall stones
© Andrew Newbound 2013
CAT Scans
•CT scans
•X-Rays concentrated
on small slices
Treat Cancer
•Can kill cells
•Particularly rapid
growth ones
•Computerised Axial
Tomography
•Detector records
intensity of X-Rays
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Placed close to patient
• Not scattered by dust
No-one else in room at
time
Machine placed in room
with thick concrete walls
• Absorb X-Rays
Entry to X-Ray room is
along zig-zag hallway
Radiation monitoring
badges
• Stops X-Rays being reflected
into busy corridors
• Thermoluminescent
dosimeters (TLDs)
• Check radiation levels
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Able to transmit energy
◦ Without moving matter

Transverse waves
◦ E.g. waves on the surface of water

Compression waves
◦ E.g. sound waves

Vibrations
◦ Cause sounds
◦ Cause compressions & rarefactions
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Medium
◦ Material which waves travel through

Frequency
◦ Number of complete waves made in 1 second

Pitch
◦ Determined by frequency

Sound
◦ Travels faster in solids & liquids than gases

Electromagnetic waves
◦ Travel through air at 3 × 105
◦ Can travel through a vacuum
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Not formed on lakes
◦ Not enough space

Size of wave
◦ Determined by strength + speed of wave

Diffraction
◦ Waves spreading out when they approaches
shallower water

Wave hits a cliff/breaks into a beach
◦ Kinetic energy ⇒ sound + heat energy
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Waver blows
over ocean
Energy is
transferred from
wind to wave
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Breaking waves
◦ Sucks up water to support itself
 Not enough since gets shallower

Rips
◦
◦
◦
◦
Move straight out
Swim sideways if caught in one
No waves breaking
Used by surfers to get out quicker
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Rays
◦ Lines used to show the path of light

Beam
◦ Stream of light rays
◦ Visible
 Particles in substances scatter it

Transparent
◦ Most light travels through a substance

Translucent
◦ Let just enough light to detect objects on other side
◦ Can’t see objects clearly
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Opaque
◦ Substances which absorb or reflect all light striking
them
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Convex Mirror
(Diverging mirror)
Concave mirror
(Converging mirror)
© Andrew Newbound 2013
∠𝑖 = ∠𝑟

Angle of incidence
= angle of reflection
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Image
◦ Something that we see that is not really where we
see it

Image in curved mirror
◦ Distorted

Concave mirror
◦ Enlarged image

Convex mirror
◦ Wide view
© Andrew Newbound 2013



Piece of glass/plastic with curved sides
Shaped to bend light rays in new directions
Shape of lens
◦ Amount of refraction of light
◦ Size & type of image

Simple camera lens - convex
◦ Focuses light to give sharp image on film

Convex lens at front of eye
◦ Focuses light onto cells at the back of our eyes
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Changes in speed at the boundary
◦ Bends towards normal
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Rainbow
◦ A spectrum of light
 Light from sun = separated

Dispersion
◦ Separation of light into its colours

Filter
◦ Plastic sheet
◦ Absorbs some colours but lets others pass through
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Tiny particles of dust & water vapour
◦ Scatter light
 Scatter blue better than red

Reflected light from objects
◦ See objects
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Red
Orange
Yellow
Green
Blue
Indigo
Violet
© Andrew Newbound 2013
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Topic 6
© Andrew Newbound 2013




Allows things to happen & change
Cannot be seen
Can never be used and destroyed
Changes into other types of energy
◦ Most can’t be used again

Energy efficiency
◦ Percentage of total energy that is used & not used

Joules (J)
◦ Unit of measurement for energy

1000J=1 kilojoule
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Fossil fuels
◦ Non-renewable
◦ Will be used up in the future

Non-renewable fuels
◦ Cause many environmental problems

Renewable energy sources
◦ Can be made again in the environment

Sustainable
◦ Can be used in the future without problems:
 Economic
 Environmental
 Social
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Don’t cause
pollution
Cheap
Readily
available
Renewable
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Type
Advantages
Disadvantages
Hydroelectricity • More rainwater is
replenished in the dam
• Only sometimes suitable
• Disrupts the
environment
Tidal energy
• Works with environment
• Expensive
• Only some places are
suitable
Wave energy
• Works with the
environment
• Cost
• Finding locations
Wind energy
• Works with the
environment
• Small power output per
generator
Solar
• Amount of suitable sites
Geothermal
• Uses unutilised energy
Biomass
• Can make more valuable
fuels
© Andrew Newbound 2013
• Very limited locations
Ethanol
Hydrogen
Biomass
•Fermentation of plant matter
•Electrolysis of water
•Methane & bacterial decay of
animal matter
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Greenhouse gases
◦ Gases which trap some of the energy leaving the
Earth’s surface
◦ E.g.





Carbon Dioxide
Methane
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Nitrogen oxides
Greenhouse effect
◦ Heat from earth radiated towards surface
◦ Supports life
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Enhanced greenhouse effect
◦ Burning of fossil fuels  more greenhouse gases
 Increase in amount of energy trapped in the
atmosphere
 Rise in temp of atmosphere
◦ Clearing forests
 For agriculture, paper production
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Greenhouse Gases
Main Sources
Carbon dioxide
• Burning of coal
• Burning of gas
• Burning of oil
Methane
• Livestock
• E.g. cows
• Rice paddies
• Mining
CFCs
•
•
•
•
Nitrous oxides
• Fertilisers
• Burning of fossil fuels
• Especially petrol
Aerosols
Refrigerants in fridges and air-cons
Production of plastic foal
Dry cleaning
© Andrew Newbound 2013
⇒ 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒
+ 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
© Andrew Newbound 2013


Contained inside nucleus of atoms
Fission
◦ Splitting an atom into 2
 Protons and neutrons join together at random
 Make 2 new atoms
 Not correct balance between neutrons, protons and
binding energy
 Eject excess
 ‘radioactive’
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Radioactive atoms
◦ Unstable
◦ Decay into stable atoms
◦ Excess energy/subatomic particles are ejected from
nucleus
 Can damage surrounding cells

Fusion
◦ Joining atoms of hydrogen to make helium
◦ Produces huge amounts of energy
◦ No radioactive waste products
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Chain reaction
◦ Neutrons being thrown from an atom during fission
triggers more fission

Nuclear medicine
◦ Radioactive chemicals to view tumours etc. inside
the body

Nuclear radiation can cause tumours
◦ Makes cells change
 Including DNA
© Andrew Newbound 2013
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Fission of a uranium-235 atom produces
◦
◦
◦
◦

A krypton atom
Barium atom
3 neutrons
Gamma rays
Boron can absorb neutrons
◦ Used in nuclear power stations
 Control rods
 Change speed of reaction
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Nuclear power station
◦ Heat from reaction
 Changes water to steam
◦ Steam drives turbines
◦ Turbines drive generators
◦ Generators produce electricity
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Carbon-14 is radioactive
◦ Nucleus is unstable due to extra neutrons
 Compared to stable carbon-12
© Andrew Newbound 2013
•2 protons and 2 neutrons
Alpha
Particles
•Like helium nucleus
•Shoot out at high speed but
slow down in air
•Paper and skin can stop
them
© Andrew Newbound 2013
• Fast electrons
Beta
Particles
• Neutron breaks up forming a
proton and an electron
• Pass through thin sheets of
metal
• Get through skin
• 20/30cm in air
© Andrew Newbound 2013
•High energy rays
Gamma
rays
•Through thick sheets of
metal
•Except lead
•Can pass deep into our
bodies
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Geiger counter
◦ Detects radiation

Half-life
◦ Time taken for ½ of radioactive atoms in a sample
to decay

Carbon dating
◦ Carbon atoms constantly being taken in when alive
 Including carbon-14
 Decay slowly when die
 Age can be worked out
© Andrew Newbound 2013
5%
4%
Oxygen
3% 2% 2% 1%
Silicon
47%
8%
Aluminium
Iron
Calcium
28%
Sodium
Potassium
Magnesium
Other elements
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Resource
◦ Useful material/substance obtained from the Earth

Metals
◦ Obtained from minerals called ores

Ore
◦ Economically important mineral
◦ Useful quantities of a metal
◦ Most are impure
 Mixed with sand + other worthless materials
 Gangue
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Concentrate
◦ Concentrated metal ore
◦ Carried to smelter
 Refined
 Through heating

Refining
◦ Purification of metals
◦ Electrolysis
 Electrical energy used to deposit pure metal onto large
electrodes
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Froth flotation
◦ Method used to extract metals from impure
minerals
◦ Make metals stick to kerosene bubbles
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Stone age
◦ People used stone tools and implements

Ancient Egyptians
◦ 1st people to smelt copper

Iron Age
◦ Began: 1500-1000BC
◦ Tech used to extract iron was developed
◦ Iron tools were widely used
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Industrial Revolution
◦
◦
◦
◦
1750-1800
Small workshops
Hand made
Energy
 factories
 machine made
 No longer animals + moving water
 Now steam engines burning coal

Ceramics & plastics
◦ Replacing metals in many uses
◦ Creating new uses
© Andrew Newbound 2013


New materials from biological molecules
Ages started at diff times in diff places
◦ Availability of resources was diff

New plastics
◦ Kevlar
◦ Polycarbonate
◦ Terram
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Stone
age
Copper
Age
Bronze
Age
• 30005000 yrs
ago
• 50002500BC
• 3500BC-
Iron Age
• 15001000BC
© Andrew Newbound 2013