Transcript Post Review of Mid-Term - Rutherford County Schools

Cells
• I can distinguish between prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells.
• I can differentiate between plant and animal
cells.
• I can identify the different organelles
associated with major cell processes.
Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic Cells
Cell Membrane
• Outer boundary of cell
• Protects the cell
• Controls what enters
and leaves the cell
• HOMEOSTASIS
Cell Wall - PLANTS
• Only found in plant
cells
• Adds protection and
support
• Made of cellulose.
• Allows water and
dissolved substances
to pass through.
ANIMAL
PLANT
The Nucleus
• Controls most
activities in the cell
• Contains all genetic
information in the
form of DNA.
Cytoplasm
• Clear fluid within cell
that contains all
organelles
• Moves materials
throughout the cell
Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Series of folded
membranes that form
sacs or tubes
• Rough ER has
ribosomes attached
Ribosomes
• Transports materials
between the cytoplasm
and nucleus
• Makes proteins in the cell
• May be free in cytoplasm
or attached to ER
• Proteins are vital to lifeall cells must produce
them
Golgi Bodies
• Saclike membranes
used for storing/
packaging of
chemicals
• Cells that make saliva
or mucus have many
Golgi bodies
• UPS – Sorts, packages,
and delivers
Mitochondria
• Energy producers
• Powerhouse of the
cell
• Sausage-shaped
• Many mitochondria in
muscle cells
Chloroplast – PLANTS only
Vacuoles
• Store food, water, or
waste materials
• Plant cells have large
vacuoles
Lysosomes
• Found in Golgi bodies
• Contain digestive
enzymes to digest
unwanted particles
• Help white blood cells
to destroy bacteria
Cell Transport
• I can compare and contrast passive transport
and active transport.
• I can predict the movement of water and
other molecules across selectively permeable
membranes. (hypertonic, isotonic, and
hypotonic)
Cell Transport
Active or Passive Transport?
• Which requires ATP energy?
• Which goes with the concentration
gradient?
• Which goes against the gradient?
Osmosis
• Movement of
water
• Across a semipermeable
membrane
• Special case of
diffusion
Passive Transport
• Diffusion or
Osmosis
• Going with the
gradient
• No ATP energy
required
High Conc. To
*** * * * *
*** * * * *
*
*
Low Conc.
*
*
*
*
High to Low Concentration
Active Transport
• Against the
gradient
• Requires ATP
• Low to High
Concentrations
• Salt returning to
blood in kidneys
****** * * *
****** * * *
****** * * *
*
*
*
*
*
*
Hypotonic or Hypertonic
Solutions?
Tap
Water
Salt water
inside cell
• Hypotonic =
“under” or low
salt outside,
relative to cell
• Hypertonic =
“over” or high salt
relative to cell
Sea water organism
in fresh water……………….
Tap
Water
Salt Water
•Inside Cell
•Low Water
H20
• Hypotonic Solution =
• Low salt concentration
outside the cell
• High Water
concentration outside
• Water moves?
• Inside
• Cell will swell up like a
HIPPO - Cell Bursts!
Fresh water organism
in salt water………….
• Hypertonic
Solution
• Water moves?
• Out of the cell
• Cell shrinks
Salt Water
•High salt
•Low water
Fresh water
•Inside cell=
•High Water
H20
Isotonic
• SAME concentration – Water will move in and
out at SAME rate
Cheek cells with dye
Checkpoint
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
1. What does the mitochondria do?
Cellular Respiration
2. What is the function of the ribosomes?
Synthesize Proteins
3. What is the function of the cell membrane?
Control what goes in and out of cell
4. What does the Golgi do?
UPS of cell, sorts, packages, and delivers
• 5. If a cell is placed in a Hypotonic solution,
which direction does the water move?
• Into cell, swell up like a HIPPO
• 6. If a cell is placed in a Hypertonic solution,
what happens to the cell?
• Shrinks, water moves out
• 7. There are two types of transport, active
and passive. Which of the following is not an
example of passive transport? Osmosis,
Diffusion, Endocytosis, or facilitated diffusion
• Endocytosis is Active Transport
• 8. In muscle cells, calcium ions are pumped through
channels into the ER. These ions move from low to high
concentration. This is an example of which of the
following: Osmosis, Diffusion, Active Transport, or
Exocytosis.
• Active Transport
• 9. Protein synthesis takes place on the _______________.
• Ribosomes
• 10. The golgi does which of the following: makes proteins,
disassembles proteins, packages and redistributes proteins,
or gives the codes for making proteins.
• Packages and redistributes
Macromolecules
• I can distinguish among proteins,
carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids.
• I can identify positive tests for carbohydrates,
lipids, and proteins.
• Refer to Macromolecule CHART
Objectives:
• I can identify how enzymes control chemical
reactions in the body.
• I can explain what happens during cell cycle.
• I can compare and contrast mitosis and
meiosis.
ENZYME
• Biological Catalyst
• Catalyst = speeds up the
rate of chemical
reaction by LOWERING
activation energy.
• Substrate or Reactants
bind to active site.
• Makes reactions
happen FASTER
Active Site
A restricted region of an enzyme molecule which binds to the
substrate.
So How Do Enzymes Work?
Enzymes work by
weakening
bonds which
lowers
activation
energy
Activation Energy = minimum amount of energy needed for
reactants (substrate) to form Products (new substance)
35
Enzymes
Lowers Activation
Energy
Without Enzyme
With Enzyme
Free
Energy
Activation Energy
Reactants
Products
Progress of the reaction
Notice Name of
Enzyme
Notice
Name of
Substrate
Name of Enzyme ends with “ASE” and is named according to its job.
See if you can identify Enzyme, Chemical Reaction, Reactants (Substrate),
Products, active site, and induced fit.
Reactants (Substrate) Induced Fit
Products
Active Site
Enzyme
Chemical
Reaction
Enzyme
Notice Reactants (Substrate bind to enzyme where chemical
reaction occurs faster because the activation energy is lowered
(less energy needed than without enzyme).
The enzyme is ready to act again and does NOT become part of the
Products.
When temperature increases the reaction also increases as the
molecules have more kinetic energy
But this only occurs up to the
optimum temperature (usually
about 98.6 o For 37o C)
The temperature at which
the rate of reaction is
fastest is known as the
optimum temperature
After the optimum temperature, the heat causes the
enzyme to denature.

The enzyme changes shape and the active site no longer matches
the shape of the substrate molecule
The activity and shape of enzymes is also
affected by pH
• Enzymes prefer to work at an optimum pH. Outside of its pH range
the enzyme is denatured. What pH does amylase work best in?
What about pepsin?
Optimum pH
pepsin
amylase
Rate
Of
Reaction
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
pH
9
10
11
12
Mitosis and Meiosis
• Identify the relationship between cell growth
and cell reproduction.
• Describe how meiosis is involved in the
production of egg and sperm cells.
• Describe how meiosis and sexual reproduction
contribute to genetic variation in a population.
Cell Cycle
• G1 = cell grows
• S = DNA replication • G2= Prepare to divide
• M= Mitosis
INTERPHASE
Stages of Mitosis – 2 Diploid
IDENTICAL Daughter Cells
•
•
•
•
Prophase – Chromosomes APPEAR (condense)
Metaphase – Chromosomes line up in MIDDLE
Anaphase – Chromosomes move AWAY to opposite poles
Telophase – TWO nuclear envelopes
• Cytokinesis – Cells divides into two daughter cells
• Cell Plate forms in PLANTS
• Cleavage furrow in ANIMALS
Sex Cells (Gametes) from Meiosis
1N (four genetically different)
DNA Replicates + 46
46
46
46
EGG
46
Meiosis--Sex Cell Formation 4
Haploid Cells Genetically DIFFERENT
• In meiosis, there are 2 divisions of the
nucleus: meiosis I & meiosis II
• Prophase I: double stranded chromosomes
and spindle fibers appear; nuclear
membrane and nucleolus fade
• 3. Metaphase I: chromosome pairs
(chromatids) line up
– spindle fibers form and attach to centromeres
and centrioles
• 4. Anaphase I: chromotids move AWAY
from matching pair
• Telophase I: cytoplasm divides and 2 cells form
• 6. Prophase II: chromatids and spindle
fibers reappear
• Metaphase II: chromatids line up in the
center of the cell
– spindle fibers attach to centromere & centriole
• Anaphase II: centromere divides
– chromosomes split and move to opposite poles
• . Telophase II: spindle fibers disappear
– nuclear membrane forms around
chromosomes at each end of cell
– each nucleus has half the # of chromosomes as
the original (haploid)
– now there are 4 sex cells (daughter cells)
Meiosis I
Meiosis II
No DNA
replication
Mitosis
Meiosis
2N
1N
2 Identical Diploid Daughter
Cells
4 Genetically Different Haploid
Cell (Crossing Over)
PMAT
PMAT x 2
Begins with 2N
Asexual
Begins with 2N
Sexual
Meiosis
• Egg and sperm cells only carry one set of 23
• Each human haploid cell is “N”
• Egg and sperm combine (fertilization) to form 2N
or 46
• All other chromosomes are called autosomes
• Each human or animal cell has sex chromosomes
XX or XY
Photosynthesis/Cellular Respiration
• I can compare and contrast photosynthesis
and cellular respiration in terms of energy
transformation.
• I can differentiate between light dependent
and light-independent reactions.
• I can recognize and understand the process of
aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
Photosynthesis (overview)
“Dark” Reaction
Carbon
fixation
Fermentation
What happens when oxygen is not available?
Glycolysis goes a different pathway.
Fermentation releases energy from food
molecules without oxygen.
During fermentation, cells convert NADH to
NAD+ by passing high energy electrons back to
pyruvic acid.
This allows glycolysis to produce a steady stream
of ATP.
Fermentation – ANAEROBIC
Lactic Acid Fermentation – reason your muscles
get sore from build-up of lactic acid.
Pyruvic acid + NADH →lactic acid + NAD+
Alcoholic fermentation has a formula of
Pyruvic acid + NADH → alcohol + CO₂ + NAD+
Compare photosynthesis and cellular
respiration
Photosynthesis
Cellular Respiration
Function
Energy storage
Energy release
Location
Chloroplast
Mitochondria
Reactants
CO₂ and H₂O and
light
C₆H₁₂O₆ and O₂
Products
C₆H₁₂O₆ and O₂
CO₂ and H₂O
Equation
6CO₂+ 6H₂O
→C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂
6O₂ + C₆H₁₂O₆
→CO₂ + H₂O
Genetics
• I can predict the outcome of a cross between
parents of known genotype.
• I can determine the probability of a particular
trait in an offspring based on the genotype of
the parents and the particular mode of
inheritance.
Phenotype & Genotype
• Phenotype - the way an
organism looks - Physical
• red hair or brown hair
• genotype - the gene combination
of an organism
• AA or Aa or aa
Word Wall
True-breeding
Homozygous
Phenotype
Physical Trait
Tall
Heterozygous
Gamete
Tt
Sex Cells – Egg and Sperm
Hybrid
Genotype
The actual genetic
make-up
TT:Tt:tt
Allele
Form of gene (T or t)
Gene
2 Alleles (one from each parent that
code for trait)
Big Eyes are dominant = BB
or Bb
Small eyes = bb
Punnett square example
Alleles for male
Alleles for
Female
Both parents are
heterozygous
Yy x Yy
Possible
Genotypes of
Offspring
1 YY:2 Yy: 1 yy
Phenotype –
3:1
Cross a homozygous Round
with wrinkled
R
In a
Punnett
square,
the
Alleles
always
move to
squares as
shown.
RR or Rr= round
rr = wrinkled
R
r
Rr
Rr
r
Rr
Rr
The actual
alleles
Physical description of
trait
Genotype =
Phenotype =
Probability =
4 Rr (heterozygous)
4 round
100% round
Parents are RR
which is same
(homozygous)
alleles for
dominant and rr
which are same
for recessive
trait
RR or Rr= round
rr = wrinkled
Cross a hybrid with a hybrid
R
In a
Punnett
square,
the
Alleles
always
move to
squares as
shown.
r
R
RR
Rr
r
Rr
rr
The actual
alleles
Physical description of
trait
Genotype =
Phenotype =
Probability =
Parents are Rr
which is
heterozygous
CLASSIC –
Mendel Hybrid
Cross
Dominant – 75%
Recessive – 25%
*Determine recessive
trait by small number
showing the trait
1 RR:2Rr:1rr
3 Round, 1 wrinkled
75% round, 25% wrinkled
Independent Assortment
• Alleles separate
independently
during the
formation of
gametes.
The dihybrid cross
EeTt x EeTt
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Mendel’s Peas
Dihybrid Cross
Cross:
TtYy x TtYy
TY
Ty
tY
ty
TTYY
TTYy
TtYY
TtYy
Tall, yellow
Tall, yellow
Tall, yellow
Tall, yellow
TTYy
TTyy
TtYy
Ttyy
Tall, yellow
Tall, green
Tall, yellow
Tall, green
TtYY
TtYy
ttYY
ttYy
Tall, yellow
Tall, yellow
TtYy
Ttyy
Tall, yellow
Tall, green
TY
Notice
Phenotype
Ratio
9:3:3:1
Ty
tY
Dwarf, yellow Dwarf, yellow
ttYy
ttyy
ty
Genotypes:
Phenotypes:
1 TTYY
: 2 TTYy
Dwarf, yellow Dwarf, green
: 4 TyYy : 2 TtYY : 1 TTyy
9 tall
plants with
yellow seeds
: 2 Ttyy : 1 ttYY : 2 ttYy : 1 ttyy
3 tall
plants with
green seeds
3 dwarf
plants with
yellow seeds
1 dwarf
plant with
green seeds
Incomplete Dominance
Japanese four-o-clock flowers
• Red flower plant genotype = RR
• White flower plant genotype = WW
• Pink flower plant genotype = RW
Appear blended. Incomplete, not Full
Strength.
Cross a Red flower with a
White Flower
R
In a
Punnett
square,
the
Alleles
always
move to
squares as
shown.
R
RR = Red
WW = white
RW = Pink
W
RW
RW
W
RW
RW
The actual
alleles
Physical description of
trait
Genotype =
Phenotype =
Probability =
4 RW
4 Pink
100% Pink
Parents are RR
for red and WW
for white. Both
are homozygous
or true
breeding.
Co Dominance
NOTE: Alleles can be represented different ways.
RR for Red, WW for White,RW for Roan or RR for
Red, R’R’ for white, and RR’ for Roan. Let’s look at a
Punnett Square with both examples.
FULL Strength
RR x WW = RW or
RR X R’R’ = RR’
Roan Cow
Cross a Roan cow with white
cow. Co-Dominance
R
In a
Punnett
square,
the
Alleles
always
move to
squares as
shown.
W
RR = Red cow
WW = white cow
RW = Roan Cow
W
RW
WW
W
RW
WW
The actual
alleles
Physical description of
trait
Genotype =
Phenotype =
Probability =
2 RW, 2 WW
2 Roan, 2 White
50% Roan, 50% White
Parents are RW
for Roan which
is heterozygous
WW which is
homozygous for
White
Cross a Roan cow with white
cow. Co-Dominance
R
In a
Punnett
square,
the
Alleles
always
move to
squares as
shown.
R’
RR = Red cow
R’R’ = white cow
RR’ = Roan Cow
R’
RR’
R’R’
R’
RR’
R’R’
The actual
alleles
Physical description of
trait
Genotype =
Phenotype =
Probability =
2 RR’, 2 R’R’
2 Roan, 2 White
50% Roan, 50% White
Parents are RW
for Roan which
is heterozygous
WW which is
homozygous for
White
Multiple Alleles
• When more than two alleles (form of gene)
contribute to the phenotype.
• Human blood types are an example
• There are three possible alleles: A,B, and O
• Both A and B are dominant over O.
• O is recessive
• AB is an example of Co-Dominance
6 different genotypes, 3 different Alleles
•
•
•
•
•
•
I AI A
I Ai
I AI B
I BI B
Ibi
ii
Type A - 2 possible
genotypes
Type AB
Type B – 2 possible
genotypes
Type O
Cross a heterozygous type A with
homozygous type B
Punnett
square
the
Alleles
always
move to
squares as
shown.
A
I
i
B
I
A
B
II
B
Ii
B
I
A
B
II
B
Ii
The actual
alleles
Physical description of
trait
Genotype =
Phenotype =
Probability =
A = I AI A , I Ai
B= IBIB, IBi
AB =IAIB O = ii
IAIB, IBi
2 AB, 2 B
50% AB, 50% B
Polygenic traits
• Traits controlled by two or more
genes.
• Lots of variation in trait.
• Examples:
–Human height,
eye and skin
color
Figure 11.17
Skin Color
Autosomal and Sex-Linked Traits
• Autosomal - Traits controlled by genes on
chromosomes 1 -22.
• Sex-Linked – Traits controlled by the X
chromosome or the Y chromosome.
• Most often sex-linked traits are on the X
chromosome.
• Let’s look at some of examples and work
together.
Cross a heterozygous female with
a colorblind male
n
X
Y
Female = XX
Male = XY
Normal = N, color-blind = n
N
X
N
n
X X
N
X Y
Xn
n
n
XX
n
XY
The actual
alleles
Physical description of
trait
Genotype =
Phenotype =
Probability =
Work like any
other Punnett
Square.
Remember no
letter on the Y.
The trait is
connected to
the X!
XNXn,XnXn,XNY,XnY
2 Females, 1 Normal, 1 Color-blind
2 Males, 1 Normal, 1 Color-blind
50% Colorblind
Test Your Knowledge of Punnett
Square
• http://www.biology.clc.uc.edu/courses/bio10
5/geneprob.htm
Punnett Squares Monohybrid & Dihybrid
Crosses
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Cross:
TtYy x TtYy
TY
Ty
tY
ty
TTYY
TTYy
TtYY
TtYy
Tall, yellow
Tall, yellow
Tall, yellow
Tall, yellow
TTYy
TTyy
TtYy
Ttyy
Tall, yellow
Tall, green
Tall, yellow
Tall, green
TtYY
TtYy
ttYY
ttYy
Tall, yellow
Tall, yellow
TtYy
Ttyy
Tall, yellow
Tall, green
TY
Ty
tY
Dwarf, yellow Dwarf, yellow
ttYy
ttyy
ty
Genotypes:
Phenotypes:
1 TTYY
: 2 TTYy
Dwarf, yellow Dwarf, green
: 4 TyYy : 2 TtYY : 1 TTyy
9 tall
plants with
yellow seeds
: 2 Ttyy : 1 ttYY : 2 ttYy : 1 ttyy
3 tall
plants with
green seeds
3 dwarf
plants with
yellow seeds
1 dwarf
plant with
green seeds
Punnett Squares
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Practice crossing different genotypes.
Notice patterns
True breeding and true breeding
TT x tt
All Tt 4:0 - phenotype
Hybrid x Hybrid = Tt x Tt
3:1 – phenotype
Scientific Inquiry
• I can read graphs and charts
• I can determine appropriate tools and
recognize that the electron microscope is used
to examine details.
What MUST occur during cell cycle
to ensure proper division of
chromosomes?
DNA must replicate
Type of consumer a mushroom is.
decomposer and heterotroph
Centrioles are found in (plant or animal
cells) and are used for cell division
animal cells
Two molecules that store energy for
longer than an hour.
Carbohydrate and lipid
What type of transport is exocytosis
and what does it do?
active transport and it moves
ions from inside to OUTSIDE
Powerhouse of the cell and
location of aerobic respiration
mitochondria
Amino acids are building blocks
of what macromolecule
proteins
Prokaryotic cells lack these
nucleus and organelles
In muscle cells, calcium ions are
pumped through channels from
LOW to HIGH concentration
using what?
active transport
Protein synthesis occurs on these.
ribosomes
What the Golgi apparatus does.
package and redistribute
proteins?
Benedicts solution turns orangebrown in presence of what
macromolecule?
carbohydrate or glucose or sugar
A cell placed in salt water will gain or
lose water causing it to swell or
shrink?
lose water and shrink because it
is in a Hypertonic solution?
Hypo = Hippo – swells, move in
Iso = equal = moves in and out at
same rate
Cell structure found only in plants
and location of photosynthesis
chloroplast
Role of enyzme in chemical
reaction.
lower activation energy thus
increasing rate of chemical reactions
Name three types of passive
transport.
Diffusion (high to low
concentration), osmosis
(diffusion of water, and
facilitated diffusion (using
protein channel or carrier.
Proper order of mitosis.
Pro, Meta, Ana, Telophase
Forms between plant and animal
cells between telophase and
cytokinesis.
cell plate for plants and cleavage
furrow for animals
Step that follows Krebs cycle in
aerobic respiration?
ETC or Electron Transport Chain the
ETC produces the MOST ATP inside
of mitochondria where aerobic
respiration takes place.
Type of respiration when oxygen is
absent or LOW
What is anaerobic respiration?
Form of chemical energy used in
cellular respiration
glucose
Cell that undergoes meiosis and
starts with 46 chromosomes will end
with 4 cells with _______. While cell
that undergoes mitosis with 46
chromosomes will end up with 2
cells with _______
23 or half for meiosis and 46
which is identical for mitosis
Energy transfer molecule of cell.
ATP
Pathways for anaerobic respiration.
• Glycolysis, Lactic Acid fermentation, Alcoholic
fermentation
Stage of mitosis where chromatin
condenses into chromosomes,
therefore becoming visible.
Prophase
Macromolecule that has
Nitrogen as well as Carbon,
Hydrogen, and Oxygen
protein
Heterozygous Genotype
• Tt
• Heterozygous means DIFFERENT
• Homozygous – TT or tt means same alleles for
genotype
Chemical equation for
Photosynthesis
• 6 CO2 + 6 H2O with sunlight yields C6H12O6 + 6O2