Transcript DNA PowerPoint - Duplin County Schools

DNA
www.nerdscience.com
What is DNA?
Polymer made of nucleotides
 Nucleotides are made of:
 a simple sugar (deoxyribose sugar)
 a phosphate group
 a nitrogen base
 It contains the code to make
proteins!

Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 12: DNA and RNA. Prentice Hall biology (North Carolina
ed., pp. 286- 317). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
12-1
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
Found in nucleus
 Coils to form
chromosomes

Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 12: DNA and RNA. Prentice Hall biology (North Carolina
ed., pp. 286- 317). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Covalent bonds hold sugar and
phosphate groups together
 Hydrogen bonds hold nitrogen
bases together

Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 12: DNA and RNA. Prentice Hall biology (North Carolina
ed., pp. 286- 317). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
The Four Nitrogen Bases are
Adenine (A)
 Thymine (T)
 Guanine (G)
 Cytosine (C)

Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 12: DNA and RNA. Prentice Hall biology (North Carolina
ed., pp. 286- 317). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
12-1
Nitrogen Base Pairs

Adenine pairs with thymine.
A
bonds to T
 T bonds to A

Guanine pairs with cytosine.
C
bonds to G
 G bonds to C
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 12: DNA and RNA. Prentice Hall biology (North Carolina
ed., pp. 286- 317). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
 Hydrogen
bonds
 weak
bonds
 hold nitrogen bases together
 bonds A -T and G - C
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 12: DNA and RNA. Prentice Hall biology (North Carolina
ed., pp. 286- 317). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Watson and Crick
1950’s
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 12: DNA and RNA. Prentice Hall biology (North Carolina
ed., pp. 286- 317). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
12-1
Watson and Crick
Discovered the structure of DNA
 DNA is double stranded
 Forms double helix spiral ladder

Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 12: DNA and RNA. Prentice Hall biology (North Carolina
ed., pp. 286- 317). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
The Genetic Code
Watson and Crick (not in template)

They discovered that :
A
bonds to T
 C bonds to G
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 12: DNA and RNA. Prentice Hall biology (North Carolina
ed., pp. 286- 317). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
12-1
Order of the nitrogen base pairs
(A,T,G,C) determines the traits of the
individual.
 Order of the nitrogen base pairs is
the genetic code.

Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 12: DNA and RNA. Prentice Hall biology (North Carolina
ed., pp. 286- 317). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Replication of DNA
Process of copying DNA
 Takes place in nucleus
 Happens before cells divide by mitosis
or meiosis

Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 12: DNA and RNA. Prentice Hall biology (North Carolina
ed., pp. 286- 317). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
DNA Replication
Allows daughter cells formed from
mitosis to be identical to parent cell.
 Allows four sex cells with ½ the
genetic material (1/2 the number of
chromosomes) to be formed in
meiosis

Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 12: DNA and RNA. Prentice Hall biology (North Carolina
ed., pp. 286- 317). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
How DNA Replicates
Hydrogen bonds break
 DNA molecule unzips between
nitrogen base pairs (A-T or T-A and
C-G or G-C)
 Nucleotides (Nitrogen base, sugar,
and phosphate groups) move from
cytoplasm into nucleus

Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 12: DNA and RNA. Prentice Hall biology (North Carolina
ed., pp. 286- 317). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Replication
of DNA
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 12: DNA and RNA. Prentice Hall biology (North Carolina
ed., pp. 286- 317). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
How DNA Replicates (cont’d)
Nucleotides moving into nucleus bond
with original strands of separated
DNA
 Two strands of DNA are formed
 Each double stranded DNA molecule
has one strand of old and one strand
of new DNA (semi-conservative
process).

Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 12: DNA and RNA. Prentice Hall biology (North Carolina
ed., pp. 286- 317). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Protein Synthesis
Transcription
 Translation

Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 12: DNA and RNA. Prentice Hall biology (North Carolina
ed., pp. 286- 317). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Introduction to Genes, Protein, and DNA
Protein Synthesis



Proteins are made in cytoplasm of cell on
ribosome (enzymes are proteins)
RNA has important role in protein
synthesis
RNA (ribonucleic acid)
 ribose sugar
 phosphate
 nitrogen bases (A, U, G, C)
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 12: DNA and RNA. Prentice Hall biology (North Carolina
ed., pp. 286- 317). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Three types of RNA
1. mRNA (messenger RNA)
 Single stranded
 Contains uracil instead of thymine
 Acts as a messenger for DNA
 Carries genetic code from nucleus into
cytoplasm to the ribosome
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 12: DNA and RNA. Prentice Hall biology (North Carolina
ed., pp. 286- 317). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
2. mRNA binds with ribosomes (rRNA) to
produce proteins
3. tRNA (transfer RNA) carry amino acids in
cytoplasm to the ribosome to make
proteins
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 12: DNA and RNA. Prentice Hall biology (North Carolina
ed., pp. 286- 317). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Transcription



Produces one single-stranded mRNA
Adenine bonds with Uracil (not Thymine)
Happens in nucleus
Hydrogen bonds break between nitrogen
bases of DNA
 DNA molecule unzips
 RNA nucleotides pair with nitrogen bases on
one side of the DNA
 Single strand of mRNA is formed

Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 12: DNA and RNA. Prentice Hall biology (North Carolina
ed., pp. 286- 317). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Transcription
Single stranded
mRNA is made
from DNA
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 12: DNA and RNA. Prentice Hall biology (North Carolina
ed., pp. 286- 317). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
DNA
strand
RNA
strand
RNA
strand
DNA
strand
Transcription
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 12: DNA and RNA. Prentice Hall biology (North Carolina
ed., pp. 286- 317). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.

After transcription, the mRNA travels out
of nucleus into cytoplasm to a ribosome.

At the ribosome translation begins and
proteins are made.
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 12: DNA and RNA. Prentice Hall biology (North Carolina
ed., pp. 286- 317). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Transcription
Translation



Genetic code carried on mRNA is
translated at the ribosome into amino
acids that make up proteins
mRNA binds to ribosome
Ribosome reads three letter codon (set of
three nitrogen bases) on mRNA
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 12: DNA and RNA. Prentice Hall biology (North Carolina
ed., pp. 286- 317). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
tRNA (transfer RNA) carry amino
acids to ribosome based on the
mRNA codons
 Amino acids are joined by peptide
bonds to form polypeptide chains
(proteins)

Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 12: DNA and RNA. Prentice Hall biology (North Carolina
ed., pp. 286- 317). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Translation and the Genetic Code


Order of nitrogen bases carried from
nucleus to cytoplasm on mRNA determines
amino acid sequence and protein
Codon - three nucleotides code for one
amino acid
mRNA strand
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 12: DNA and RNA. Prentice Hall biology (North Carolina
ed., pp. 286- 317). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Ribosome
mRNA codon
Translation
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 12: DNA and RNA. Prentice Hall biology (North Carolina
ed., pp. 286- 317). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Translation
Translation
Process of
making a
protein (a
long chain of
amino acids)
based on the
codons on the
mRNA
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 12: DNA and RNA. Prentice Hall biology (North Carolina
ed., pp. 286- 317). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Codons on mRNA for the 20 different
amino acids shared by all living things
www.nerdscience.com
12-3
Genetic Engineering


Selective Breeding
Recombinant DNA





Transgenic organisms
Cloning
Human Genome Project
Gene therapy
DNA fingerprints
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 13: Genetic Engineering. Prentice Hall biology (North
Carolina ed., pp. 318- 338). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.

Selective Breeding
 Carefully selecting which plants
and animals to breed to get
desired traits in offspring
 Inbreeding
 Crossing
similar organisms
 Crossing
different organisms
 Hybridization
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 13: Genetic Engineering. Prentice Hall biology (North
Carolina ed., pp. 318- 338). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Concept Map
Selective
Breeding
consists of
Inbreeding
Hybridization
which crosses
which crosses
Similar
organisms
Dissimilar
organisms
for
example
for
example
Organism
breed A
Organism
breed B
Organism
breed A
which
which
Retains desired
characteristics
Combines desired
characteristics
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 13: Genetic Engineering. Prentice Hall biology (North
Carolina ed., pp. 318- 338). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Nerdscience.com
13-1
Spots from lion, stripes from tiger
Likes to swim like tiger
Roars like lion and also can make tiger sounds
Liger – Cross between a male lion and a female tiger
Genetic Modifications in History of Agriculture
Recombinant DNA
Contains DNA from a different
organism
 Made by inserting genes from one
organism into the DNA of another
organism (gene splicing)
 Transferred or new gene becomes
part of the receiving organism’s DNA
and is passed on

Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 13: Genetic Engineering. Prentice Hall biology (North
Carolina ed., pp. 318- 338). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Making Recombinant DNA
The plasmid (ring shaped DNA) is
taken out of E. coli bacteria
 The E. coli plasmid (ring shaped DNA)
is cut with restriction enzymes.
 Human gene for making insulin is put
in the E. coli DNA

Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 13: Genetic Engineering. Prentice Hall biology (North
Carolina ed., pp. 318- 338). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Inserting
gene
sequences
into DNA
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 13: Genetic Engineering. Prentice Hall biology (North
Carolina ed., pp. 318- 338). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Recombinant DNA (E. coli and human
insulin genes) are put back in
bacteria
 E. coli now produces human insulin
for control of diabetes.
 As E. coli bacteria reproduce
asexually by binary fission, the
human DNA is copied and passed on
to the new bacteria.

Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 13: Genetic Engineering. Prentice Hall biology (North
Carolina ed., pp. 318- 338). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 13: Genetic Engineering. Prentice Hall biology (North
Carolina ed., pp. 318- 338). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 13: Genetic Engineering. Prentice Hall biology (North
Carolina ed., pp. 318- 338). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Advances in Plant Genetics
Genetically Engineered
Soybeans
Before spray with herbicide
After spray with herbicide
Bt genes

Bt is a gene found in Bacillus
thuringiensis (a bacteria found in the
soil) that kills insects
European corn borer
Bollworm
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 14: The Human Genome. Prentice Hall biology (North
Carolina ed., pp. 340- 364). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
 Bt
gene is transferred into corn
and cotton plants to protect
them from pests
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 13: Genetic Engineering. Prentice Hall biology (North
Carolina ed., pp. 318- 338). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Cotton without
Bt gene
Cotton with Bt
gene
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 13: Genetic Engineering. Prentice Hall biology (North
Carolina ed., pp. 318- 338). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 13: Genetic Engineering. Prentice Hall biology (North
Carolina ed., pp. 318- 338). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Advantages of Genetically Modified Food
Recombinant DNA techniques have
increased enzyme activity and improved
the production of:
Cheese
laundry detergents
pulp and paper production
sewage treatment
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 13: Genetic Engineering. Prentice Hall biology (North
Carolina ed., pp. 318- 338). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Other products of
recombinant
DNA

Human growth
hormone
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 13: Genetic Engineering. Prentice Hall biology (North
Carolina ed., pp. 318- 338). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Other products of recombinant DNA




Interferon, used to fight viruses
Vaccines
Phenylalanine: aspartame (artificial
sweetener)
Bacteria that break down pollutants and oil
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 13: Genetic Engineering. Prentice Hall biology (North
Carolina ed., pp. 318- 338). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.


Recombinant DNA technology is used
a lot in the agricultural and food
industries to produce transgenic
organisms.
Crops have been developed that are
better tasting, stay fresh longer, and
are protected from disease and
insects.
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 13: Genetic Engineering. Prentice Hall biology (North
Carolina ed., pp. 318- 338). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Cloning




Clones are produced asexually
Clones have identical genes (DNA)
Genes can be cloned (recombinant DNA)
Organisms can be cloned
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 13: Genetic Engineering. Prentice Hall biology (North
Carolina ed., pp. 318- 338). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Cloned calves
ANDi
The first
genetically
modified
rhesus
monkey
Copy cat(Cc)
First cloned cat
Rainbow, Cc’s “mom” and Cc
with her surrogate mother
Human Genome Project
The Human Genome Project, an
international effort, has sequenced
the chromosomal DNA of the human
genome.
 Efforts are underway to determine
the location for every gene.

Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 14: The Human Genome. Prentice Hall biology (North
Carolina ed., pp. 340- 364). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Human Genome Project
Applications

Improved techniques for
 Diagnosis of genetic disorders
 prenatal diagnosis of human
disorders
 use of gene therapy
 development of new methods of
crime detection
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 14: The Human Genome. Prentice Hall biology (North
Carolina ed., pp. 340- 364). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Gene Therapy

insert normal genes into human cells
to correct genetic disorders
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 14: The Human Genome. Prentice Hall biology (North
Carolina ed., pp. 340- 364). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Gene Therapy
Cell
culture
flask
Add virus with
functioning
SCID gene
Bone marrow cells
Gene
Hip Bone
Bone marrow cell
with integrated gene
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 14: The Human Genome. Prentice Hall biology (North
Carolina ed., pp. 340- 364). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
DNA Fingerprinting



Must have a sample of DNA from cellular
material (tissue)
Unique to people like fingerprints are
Not made from human fingerprints
Human fingerprints are left from sweat
 Fingerprints from fingers do not have DNA

Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 14: The Human Genome. Prentice Hall biology (North
Carolina ed., pp. 340- 364). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
DNA Fingerprinting

Made from gel electrophoresis
Separates DNA pieces based on size
 Smaller pieces (fragments) travel down the
gel farther and faster than longer, larger
pieces.



DNA patterns from gel electrophoresis
used to identify people
Used to test paternity and identify crime
suspects
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 14: The Human Genome. Prentice Hall biology (North
Carolina ed., pp. 340- 364). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
The Gel


With a consistency
that is firmer than
dessert gelatin, the
gel is molded so that
small wells form at
one end.
Gel
Small amounts of the
fragmented DNA are placed
into these wells.
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 14: The Human Genome. Prentice Hall biology (North
Carolina ed., pp. 340- 364). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
An electric field

The gel is
placed in a
solution and an
electric field is
applied making
one end of the
gel positive
and the other
end negative. Positive
Power
source
Negative
end
end
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 14: The Human Genome. Prentice Hall biology (North
Carolina ed., pp. 340- 364). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
The fragments move

The
negatively
charged DNA
fragments
travel toward
the positive
end.
Completed gel
Longer
fragments
Shorter
fragments
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 14: The Human Genome. Prentice Hall biology (North
Carolina ed., pp. 340- 364). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Gel Electrophoresis

http://www.teachersdomain.org/68/sci/life/stru/creatednafingerprint/
Identification
of Crime
Scene
Suspects
Paternity Identification (ID Parents)
Half of the soldier’s DNA matches parent
C and the other half matches parent D.
INTERACTIVE ROLE
OF GENETICS AND
THE ENVIRONMENT
Sickle Cell Anemia

Inherited disease
that affects the
hemoglobin on the
RBC (red blood cell)
by changing shape
from round to sickle
Normal cell
Sickle cell
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 14: The Human Genome. Prentice Hall biology (North
Carolina ed., pp. 340- 364). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Sickle Shaped RBCs

Decrease amount of oxygen hemoglobin
(a protein) can carry



Less oxygen to the cells causes fatigue
(feeling tired)
Cause clots
Higher altitudes have less oxygen so
normal cells become sickle shaped
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 14: The Human Genome. Prentice Hall biology (North
Carolina ed., pp. 340- 364). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Malaria

Caused by a
mosquito bite (vector)
that is infected by
small parasite,
Plasmodium
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 14: The Human Genome. Prentice Hall biology (North
Carolina ed., pp. 340- 364). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.

Malaria symptoms
anemia (low red blood cell count)
 Fever
 Shivering
 joint pain
 vomiting


Malaria treatment

Can be treated with the correct drugs
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 14: The Human Genome. Prentice Hall biology (North
Carolina ed., pp. 340- 364). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Malaria
Cancers
Mouth and lung cancer caused by tobacco use
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 14: The Human Genome. Prentice Hall biology (North
Carolina ed., pp. 340- 364). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Skin Cancer


Caused by UV radiation in sunlight
Some UV radiation is important because
Vitamin D is produced in skin when exposed
to UV rays in sunlight
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 14: The Human Genome. Prentice Hall biology (North
Carolina ed., pp. 340- 364). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Diet and Nutrition
1. PKU



Genetic disorder involving the absence of an
enzyme (protein) which breaks down the
amino acid phenylalanine
Build up of this amino acid causes severe
damage to the central nervous system
including mental retardation
Can be controlled by diet. People with PKU
cannot eat anything with phenylalanine
(most diet foods)
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 14: The Human Genome. Prentice Hall biology (North
Carolina ed., pp. 340- 364). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Phenylketonuria
Phenylketonurics: Contains Phenylalanine
2. Diabetes
Genetic disorder involving problems with the
production of insulin which helps the body to
use sugar (glucose)
 Treatment
 Diet – limit amount of carbohydrates
(sugar)
 Insulin – produced by recombinant DNA
 Exercise – body “burns” excess glucose

Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 14: The Human Genome. Prentice Hall biology (North
Carolina ed., pp. 340- 364). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
3. Poor nutrition
 Lack of nutrients which are needed by
the body
 Obesity (eating too much food)
 Malnutrition (not eating the right foods or
not enough food)
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 14: The Human Genome. Prentice Hall biology (North
Carolina ed., pp. 340- 364). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Other Environmental Toxins



Mercury and lead
Bioaccumulate in food chain due to
biomagnification
Affect organisms higher in the food chain
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 14: The Human Genome. Prentice Hall biology (North
Carolina ed., pp. 340- 364). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Mutation





Result of change in genetic code or
sequence of nucleotides
Can lead to a change in proteins
DNA does not replicate correctly or
chromosomes do not pair correctly
Caused by mutagens (drugs, chemicals,
radiation)
Causes genetic variation
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 14: The Human Genome. Prentice Hall biology (North
Carolina ed., pp. 340- 364). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
The effects of point mutations
mRNA
Normal
Protein
Stop
Replace G with A
mRNA
Point
mutation Protein
Stop
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 14: The Human Genome. Prentice Hall biology (North
Carolina ed., pp. 340- 364). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Frameshift mutations
Deletion of U
Frameshift
mutation
mRNA
Protein
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 14: The Human Genome. Prentice Hall biology (North
Carolina ed., pp. 340- 364). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Types of Mutations

Enzymes proofread DNA and replace
incorrect nucleotides with correct
nucleotides

The greater exposure to mutagens, the
greater chance mutations will occur
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 14: The Human Genome. Prentice Hall biology (North
Carolina ed., pp. 340- 364). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Bibliography
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Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 12: DNA and RNA. Prentice Hall
biology (North Carolina ed., pp. 286- 317). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice
Hall.
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 13: Genetic Engineering. Prentice
Hall biology (North Carolina ed., pp. 318- 338). Upper Saddle River, N.J.:
Prentice Hall.
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2005). Chapter 14: The Human Genome. Prentice
Hall biology (North Carolina ed., pp. 340- 364). Upper Saddle River, N.J.:
Prentice Hall.