Transcript Organic Carbon - SOIL 5813 - Oklahoma State University

ORGANIC MATTER
SOIL 5813
Soil-Plant Nutrient Cycling and
Environmental Quality
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences
Oklahoma State University
Stillwater, OK 74078
email: [email protected]
Tel: (405) 744-6414
Questions
 Has Agriculture Contributed to the
Increase in Atmospheric CO2?
 Can Agricultural Practices Lead to
Decreased Atmospheric CO2?
1. Organic Matter (Nutrient Supplying Power of Soil)
CO2 levels in the atmosphere have increased from 260 to 387 ppm in the last 150 years
Increase in CO2 due to decrease in soil organic matter? (30 ppm of the 120 ppm)
Expected to rise 1.5 to 2.0 ppm per year (Wittwer, 1985)
Responsible for 0.5 °C global temp increase
Benefits associated with increased atmospheric CO2 (increased water use efficiency, nitrogen
use efficiency and production in many crops)
Can OC be increased?
No-till management practices (10 yrs no-tillage with corn, OC in surface 30 cm increased by
0.25% (Blevins et al. 1983).
N rates in excess of that required for maximum yields result in increased biomass production
(decreased harvest index values e.g., unit grain produced per unit dry matter) . Increased
amounts of carbon from corn stalks, wheat stems,
Fertility of forest and grassland soils in North America has declined significantly as soil organic
matter was mined by crop removal without subsequent addition of plant and animal
manures (Doran and Smith, 1987).
For thousands of years, organic matter levels were allowed to increase in these native prairie
soils since no cultivation was ever employed.
As soil organic matter levels declined, so too has soil productivity while surface soil erosion
losses have increased. Because of this, net mineralization of soil organic nitrogen fell
below that needed for sustained grain crop production (Doran and Smith, 1987).
35
30
Grain yield, bu/ac
25
20
15
10
5
0
1892
1912
1932
1952
1972
Year
Magruder Check Plot Yields, 1892-2011
1992
2012
Available Mineral N, kg ha -1
To maintain yields with continuous cultivation, supplemental N inputs from fertilizers, animal
manures or legumes are required
75
Net N lost from soil humus
Net N mineralized during fallow
50
Nitrogen mineralized
from straw and roots
25
Cereal crop requirement
( 17 Mg ha-1 )
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Years of Cultivation
Influence of cultivation time on relative mineralization from soil humus and wheat residue.
(From Campbell et al. (1976)). Should the decline in years 1-5 be greater?
Changes in soil organic matter, Magruder Plots, 1892-2009
When the prairie soils of Oklahoma were first cultivated in the late 1800s,
there was approximately 4.0% soil organic matter in the surface 1
foot.
Within that 4.0% organic matter, there were over 8000 lb of N/acre.
Following more than 100 years of continuous cultivation, soil organic
matter has now declined to less than 1%.
Within that 1% organic matter, only 2000 lb of N/acre remains.
N removal in the Check (no fertilization) plot of the Magruder Plots
20 bu/acre * 60 lb/bu * 100 years = 120000 lbs
120000 lbs * 2%N in the grain = 2400 lbs N/acre over 100 years
8000 lbs N in the soil (1892)
-2000 lbs N in the soil (1992)
-2400 lbs N removed in the grain
+1000 lbs N (10 lb N/ac/yr added via rainfall in 100 years)
=4600 lbs N unaccounted
Question: Where did it go?
N removal in the Check (no fertilization) plot of the Magruder Plots
20 bu/acre * 60 lb/bu * 100 years = 120000lbs
120000 lbs * 2%N in the grain = 2400 lbs N/acre over 100 years
8000 lbs N in the soil (1892)
-2000 lbs N in the soil (1992)
-2400 lbs N removed in the grain
+1000 lbs N (10 lb N/ac/yr added via rainfall in 100 years)
=4600 lbs N unaccounted
Plant N Loss
Denitrification
Total N (dry combustion)
2.00 ± 0.01%
ppm = % * 10000
1.0% = 10,000 ppm
0.01% = 100 ppm
ppm* 2 = lb/ac (0-6”, Pb*ppm*1.3597254) Pb=1.47
± 0.01% = ± 200 lb/ac
Effects that management systems will have on soil organic matter and the resultant
nutrient supplying power of the organic pools are well known. Various management
variables and their effect on soil organic matter are listed;
Organic Matter Management
Effect
_____________________________________
1)
tillage
+/-
conventional
-
zero
+
2) soil drainage
+/-
3) crop residue placement
+/-
4) burning
-
5) use of green manures
+
6) animal wastes and composts
+
7) nutrient management
+/-
excess N
+
______________________________________
Composition of Organic Matter
Soil microorganisms and fauna make up a relatively small portion of total soil organic
matter (1-8%).
Functions as an important catalyst for transformations of N and other nutrients
Majority of soil organic matter is contained in the nonliving component that includes plant,
animal and microbial debris and soil humus.
Cellulose generally accounts for the largest proportion of fresh organic material
•
decays rapidly
•
need N for decay
Lignin decomposes slowly
•
nutrients bound in lignin forms are not available for plant growth
•
lignin is insoluble in hot water and neutral organic solvents, but it is soluble in
alkali solutions
•
T/F seldom find calcareous soils with high organic matter?
•
polysaccharides decompose rapidly in soils and serve as an immediate source
of C for microorganisms.
Form
Formula
Decomposition
Composition
____________________________________________________________________________________
Cellulose
(C6H10O5)n
rapid *
Hemicellulose
glucose
15-50%
5-35%
C6H12O6
moderate-slow
C5H10O5
moderate-slow
galactose
mannose
xylose
Lignin(phenyl-propane)
slow
15-35%
Crude Protein
rapid
1-10%
RCHNH2COOH**
Polysaccharides
Chitin
(C6H9O4.NHCOCH3)n
rapid
Starch
glucose chain
rapid
Pectins
galacturonic acid
rapid
Inulin
fructose units
____________________________________________________________________________________
* - decomposition more rapid in the presence of N
** - amino acid glycine (one of many building blocks for proteins)
Original component left, grams
100
Total
organic
matter
80
60
40
Cellulose
20
Lignin
Hemicellulose
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
Years
Figure 1.2. Decomposition of Miscanthus sinensis leaf litter.
Composition of mature cornstalks (Zea mays L.) initially and after 205 days of incubation with a
mixed soil microflora, in the presence and absence of added nutrients (Tenney and Waksman,
1929)
___________________________________________________________________________________
Initial
Constituents or fraction
Composition after 205 days (%)
composition
No nutrients
Nutrients
%
added
added
___________________________________________________________________________________
Ether and alcohol soluble
6
1
<1
Cold water soluble
11
3
4
Hot water soluble
4
4
5
Hemicelluloses
18
15
11
Cellulose
30
13
6
Lignins
11
23
24
Crude protein
2
9
11
Ash
7
19
26
___________________________________________________________________________________
C:N
 Is the C:N Ratio a Reliable Parameter
that can be used to predict N
Mineralization in Soils
1.
As decomposition proceeds, water soluble fractions (sugars, starch, organic
acids, pectins and tannins and array of nitrogen compounds) readily utilized
by microflora.
2.
Ether and alcohol-soluble fractions (fats, waxes, resins, oils),
hemicelluloses and cellulose decrease with time as they are utilized as
carbon and energy sources.
3.
Lignin, persists and can accumulate in the decaying biomass because of its
resistance to microbial decomposition.
4.
Decomposition rates of crop residues are often proportional to their lignin
content and some researchers have suggested that the lignin content may
be a more reliable parameter for predicting residue decomposition rates
than the C:N ratio.
5.
Vigil and Kissel (1991) included the lignin-to-N ratio and total soil N
concentration (in g/kg) as independent variables to predict potential N
mineralization in soil. They also noted that the break point between net N
mineralization and net immobilization was calculated to be at a C/N ratio of
40.
The carbon cycle revolves around CO2, its fixation and regeneration.
Chlorophyll-containing plants use CO2 as their sole C source and the carbonaceous matter
synthesized serves to supply the animal world with preformed organic carbon.
Without the microbial pool, more carbon would be fixed than is released, CO2 concentrations
in the atmosphere would decrease and photosynthesis rates would decrease.
Plant-carbon
A
B
Animal-carbon
Soil organic matter
C
Microbial cells, decayed residues
D
E
Carbon dioxide
A. Photosynthesis
B. Respiration, plant
C. Respiration, animal
D. Autotropic microorganisms
E. Respiration, microbial
The c a rbon c yc le
•Terrestrial carbon stocks are more difficult to measure
•1500 billion tons of C are believed to have accumulated in ground
litter and soils
•Terrestrial organisms, primarily plants, account for an estimated 560
billion tons of carbon.
•The largest carbon reservoirs are the deep oceans and fossil fuel
deposits, which account for some 38000 and 10000 billion tons of
carbon respectively.
GT C, Earth Sinks
Atmosphere
Land Plants
Soil Organic Matter
Oceans
Fossil Fuels
Which is Larger?
ATMOSPHERE
720 GT C (350 ppm)
LAND PLANTS
6 GT
60 GT
Microbial
Decomposition
C6H12O6 +6O2
1.5 GT
Fossil fuel burning
120 GT
6CO2 + 6H2O
C6H12O6 +6O2
Gaseous exchange driven by
death and sinking of phytoplankton
60 GT
CO2
Net Destruction
of vegetation
6CO2 + 6H2O
Photosynthesis
Plant Respiration
3 GT/year increase in atmospheric C (1.5 ppm/year)
~2.5 GT/year unaccounted for in current cycle*
2 GT
560 GT C
Tyson Ochsner, 1998
SOIL ORGANIC MATTER
1500 GT C
Arrows represent annual fluxes
* Forests are often proposed
as sinks for this “missing” C.
FOSSIL FUEL
10000 GT C
OCEANS
38,000 GT C
GT C, Earth Sinks
720
560
1500
10,000
Atmosphere
Land Plants
Soil Organic Matter
Oceans
Fossil Fuels
38,000
C:N Ratios as Related to Organic Matter Decomposition
In general, the following C:N ratios are considered to be a general rule of thumb in terms of
what is expected for immobilization and mineralization.
C:N Ratio
Effect
30:1
immobilization
<20:1
mineralization
20-30:1
immobilization = mineralization
1.
C:N ratios say nothing about the availability of carbon or nitrogen to microorganisms
2.
Why? What makes up the carbon (C) component
3.
In tropical soils, significantly higher proportions of lignin will be present in the organic
matter
4.
Even though the percent N within the organic matter may be the same, it would be
present in highly stable forms that were resistant to decomposition.
5.
Therefore, mineralization rates in organic matter that contain high proportions of lignin will
be much smaller
6.
C:N ratios discussed were generally developed from data obtained in temperate climates.
7.
Therefore their applicability to tropical soils is at best minimal.
Decomposition of Organic Matter (Mineralization)
1. percent organic matter
2. organic matter composition
3. cultivation (crop, tillage, burning)
4. climate (moisture, temperature)
5. soil pH
6. N management (fertilization)
7. soil aeration
Rapid increase in the number of heterotrophic organisms accompanied by the evolution of
CO2 (initial stages)
Wide C:N ratio of fresh material i= net N immobilization
As decay proceeds, C:N ratio narrows & energy supply of C diminishes.
Addition of materials with >1.5 to 1.7% N need no supplemental fertilizer N or soil N to meet
demands of microorganisms during decomposition
‘Demands of the microorganisms' discussed first, disregarding plant N needs
Adding large amounts of oxidizable carbon from residues with less than 1.5% N creates a
microbiological demand for N, immobilize residue N and inorganic soil N
Addition of fertilizer N to low N residues accelerates rate of decomposition (Parr and
Papendick, 1978).
•1000+yrs prior to the time cultivation was initiated, C and N had built up in native
prairie soils.
•C:N ratio was wide, reflecting conditions for immobilization of N.
•Combined influence of tillage and the application of additional organic materials (easily
decomposable wheat straw and/or corn stalks)
•Cultivation alone unleashed a radical decomposition of the 4% organic matter in
Oklahoma soils.
•Easily decomposable organic materials added back to a cultivated soil, increases CO2
evolution and NO3 is initially immobilized.
•Within one yearly cycle in a temperate climate, net increase in NO3 is reflected via
mineralization of freshly added straw/stalks and native organic matter pools.
•Percent N in added organic material increases while the C:N ratio decreases
•In order for this to happen, some form of carbon must be lost from the system. In this
case CO2 is being evolved via the microbial decomposition of organic matter.
80
60
C:N
Net Immobilization
40
Net Mineralization
20
0
4 to 8 Weeks
NO 3-
CO 2Evolution
New NO3- Level
Amount
CO2
Time
Cultivation and addition of straw, N immobilization & mineralization of N, evolution of CO2
1.75
40
1.5
30
1.25
1
20
C:N ratio of rotting tissue
Nitrogen in rotting tissue, percent
2
0.75
0.5
0
30
60
Days
90
10
120
Changes in the nitrogen content of decomposing barley straw (From Alexander, 1977).
Mineralization of materials containing little N (C:N ratio tends to decrease with time)…
results from the gaseous loss of carbon while N remains in organic combination for as
long as the C:N ratio is wide.
% N in residual substance increases as decomposition progresses
Manure Applied
1
Mineral N
Mineral N
Mineral N
Mineral N
2
Microbial tissue
Microbial tissue
0
3
Time
0
Straw Applied
Time
protein
exhausted
4
Fallow
Mineral N
Mineral N
Microbial tissue
Cropped
Mineral N
0
sugar
exhausted
0
4
Time (weeks)
Time
Changes in soil mineral N as a function of time, and addition of
manure and straw.
14
Oklahoma
Tropical Soil
min, 1%
max, 2%
min, 4%
max, 12%
1 ha (0-15cm), kg
2241653
2241653
2241653
2241653 (Pb = 1.47)
Organic, matter, kg
22416
44833
89666
268998
% N in OM
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
kg N in OM (Total)
1120.8
2241.6
4483.3
13449.9
% N mineralized/yr
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
33.6
67.2
134.4 ?
403.5 ?
(5%)
(3%)
TOTAL (kg N/ha/yr)
Pb= Mass of dry soil/volume of solids and voids
2000000 pounds/afs
ft3*0.02832 = m3
0.4535 lb/kg
1 ha = 2.471ac
1 ha = 10000m2
1 ac = 4047m2
What will happen if
a) bulk density is changed?
b) % N in organic matter?
c) % N mineralized per year?
2000000 lb = 907184.74 kg = 907.184 Mg
43560 ft2 * 0.5 ft = 21780 ft3 = 616.80m3
907.184Mg/616.80m3 = Pb 1.4707
10000m2 * 0.15m = 1500 m3
2241653 kg /1000 = 2241.6 Mg
2241.6/1500 = Pb 1.49 (g/cm3 = Mg/m3)
Organic Matter = 0.35 + 1.80 * (organic carbon)
Ranney (1969)
Form
Formula
Decomposition
Composition
____________________________________________________________________________________
Cellulose
(C6H10O5)n
rapid *
Hemicellulose
glucose
15-50%
5-35%
C6H12O6
moderate-slow
C5H10O5
moderate-slow
galactose
mannose
xylose
Lignin(phenyl-propane)
slow
15-35%
Crude Protein
rapid
1-10%
RCHNH2COOH**
Polysaccharides
Chitin
(C6H9O4.NHCOCH3)n
rapid
Starch
glucose chain
rapid
Pectins
galacturonic acid
rapid
Inulin
fructose units
____________________________________________________________________________________
* - decomposition more rapid in the presence of N
** - amino acid glycine (one of many building blocks for proteins)
Microorganisms
Most important function is the breakdown of organic materials, a process by which the
limited supply of CO2 available for photosynthesis is replenished (Alexander, 1977).
Five major groups of microorganisms in the soil are:
1.
Bacteria
2.
Actinomycetes
3.
Fungi
4.
Algae
5.
Protozoa
Soil Bacteria: 108 to 1010 / g of soil
Heterotroph: (chemoorganotrophic) require preformed organic nutrients to serve as
sources of energy and carbon
1. Fungi
2. Protozoa
3. Most Bacteria
Autotroph: (lithotrophic) obtain their energy from sunlight or by the oxidation of inorganic
compounds and their carbon by the assimilation of CO2
Photoautotroph: energy derived from sunlight
1. Algae (blue-green, cyanobacteria)
2. Higher Plants
3. Some Bacteria
Chemoautotroph: energy for growth obtained by the oxidation of inorganic materials.
1. Few Bacterial species (agronomic importance)
a. nitrobacter, nitrosomonas and thiobacillus
Discussion
Mullen et al., (1999)
Ranney (1969)
%OM = 0.35 + 1.80 * Organic Carbon
3.95 = 0.35 + 1.80 * 2.0
4.35 = 0.35 + 2.00 * 2.0
0.40% OM
20 mg of the 80 mg kg-1 increase in atmospheric CO2 (25 %)
would now be
25 mg of the 80 mg kg-1 increase in atmospheric CO2 (31%)
Wright et al., (2001) (maize, rice, wheat, agroforestry)
CAST paper (3.4 Pg C increase, versus 3.0 GT increase SCIENCE), Kyoto
Lohry (High yield agriculture)1,778 million metric tons of CO2 (corn yields of 275 bu/ac USA)
Resurgent Forests (1997)
Optimum pH range for rapid decomposition of various organic wastes and crop
residues is 6.5 to 8.5.
Bacteria and actinomycetes have pH optima near neutrality and, thus do not
compete effectively for nutrients under acidic conditions. This explains why
soil fungi often become dominant in acid soils.
Decomposition rates of crop residues are often proportional to their lignin
content (Parr and Papendick)
Lignin content may be a more reliable parameter for predicting residue
decomposition rates than the C:N ratio (Alexander)
Addition of materials with >1.5 to 1.7% N need no supplemental fertilizer N or
soil N to meet demands of microorganisms during decomposition
Increased OM, increased requirement for ____________ (nutrients,
herbicides?)