Transcript Public Administration

Bachelor of Public Administration – Year One
Public Administration 1A
Introduction to Public Administration
1 Introduction
•Public administrators and managers, the world over, are confronted
with issues relating to development.
•The public sector requires effective managers who have the capacity to
lead and redesign organisations for strategic development.
•Development challenges, in effect, have become human resource
challenges.
•Human resource development, according to the Reconstruction and
Development Programme (RDP), is a process whereby South Africans
acquire and develop knowledge and skills in terms of occupation as well
as for social, cultural, intellectual and political roles that constitute a
vibrant democratic society.
•The realisation of RDP requires the South African Public service to be
equipped with well trained persons with a proactive problem-solving
attitude.
• Public personnel should have the capacity to analyse, reflect, decide
and act appropriately.
• Universities and Technikons are to ensure that public management
graduates have the skills to improve organisational performance to
develop goals of society.
• In order to equip graduates with appropriate knowledge and skills
methods of teaching need to be revisited in that the traditional “chalk
and talk” should be replaced by discussion based teaching where
case studies take centre stage. Students can now relate to their own
experiences and thereby be able to interpret reality.
• This, in effect, can enable one to decide on appropriate action that
requires observation, analysis, selection, decision making and action.
• Organisations, both public and private, should take on the role of
“learning organisations” so that administrators and managers can
cope with turbulent organisational and environmental conditions.
1.1 Development of Public Administration
• The origin of public administration dates back to centuries when
communities became aware of the need to work collectively for the
provision of goods and services economically so as tom benefit the
community at large
• The importance of government and government structures to take
care of security, safety, trade and basic services was also realized by
communities
• To ensure an orderly existence communities were willing to conclude
an agreement with the government
• The government would govern the community and in turn will
receive collect services, safety, security and democratic rights – thus
the emergence of ‘public administration”
1.1.1 Contributing Factors to the Origin and Further Development of
Public Administration
• Human needs, common needs, increasing the need for services and
need for better distribution of services are, according to Du Toit and
Van Der Walt (2000), the factors that contributed to the origin and
further development of public administration
1.1.1 Human Needs
• Food, water and shelter are the most basic needs for human survival
• These basic needs, according to the Hierarchy of Needs Theory
• ( Maslow’s theory), are at the lowest level of the hierarchy.
• Once basic needs are met there is a shift to higher level needs such
as safety and security followed by higher social needs until such time
individuals reach the stage of self- actualization.
• The needs of individuals vary at different points in time – they can
change from time to time.
• Public administration serves as the means to satisfy the innumerable
needs of individuals.
• It accomplishes this through complex processes and activities that
include policy making, organizing, work methods, and procedures
and control.
1.1.2 Common Needs
•The easy access to social needs through group action resulted in
the formation of settled communities.
•Sophistication and growth of population numbers in settled
communities made it increasingly difficult for individuals to meet
some of their social needs by themselves.
•Typical needs that include provision of water, electricity, refuse
removal, roads and transport had to be rendered by someone else
to satisfy the community as a whole.
•This gave rise to a need for a government – an overall
association type of government to cater for the social needs of the
community.
•The successful rendering of collective public services to
communities has rendered governments as a requirement in
developed countries.
1.1.3 Increasing Need for Service
• Urbanisation and subsequent in increase in concentrations of people
in places has given rise to a multitude of needs by communities that
governments are mandated to provide.
• The simultaneous development of urban and rural communities is
the prime objective of most developing countries.
• Governments attempt to achieve this through, inter alia, marketing
agricultural products, educating children in rural communities,
policing, providing health care and using soil judiciously in all sectors
of the country.
• Establishment and maintenance of infrastructure that include road
and rail links, schools and boarding houses, police stations,
magistrates office, clinics and hospitals and agricultural extension can
be seen in most parts of the country.
1.1.4 Need for Better Distribution of Services
• Central government takes responsibility for meeting the needs (goods
and services ) for all its citizens.
• Governments, due to increase in population, lack the capacity to
meet the needs of the nation at a national level.
• Provincial and local governments (second and third tier of
governments) have been created to cater for the communities.
• Local government, closest to communities, is responsible for basic
services which, inter alia, include provision of water and electricity,
refuse removal, housing and clinics.
1.2 Society’s Problem with Meeting Needs
• The needs of society are unlimited whereas the resources required to
meet the needs of society need are very limited.
• Public managers are , within the constraints of limited resources,
required to meet as many needs as possible.
1.2.1 Unlimited Needs and Limited Resources
• The reasons for the above are as follows:
• Human beings, once they have met their basic needs, tend to aspire
for needs at the higher level. Reference in this regard can be made to
developed countries where communities demand for better and
relatively new products and services.
• In developing countries, including South Africa, Government strives
to maintain a balance between the urban and rural communities with
respect to development needs. The RDP is an example of such an
initiative.
• In third world countries the population growth necessitates the
increase for products and services on a daily basis.
• Limited basic resources can, inter alia, be attributed to the following:
• Natural resources that include land, water, minerals etc., are non
renewal and as such cannot be increased and therefore should not be
overutilised.
• Capital, a scarce resource, is required to compensate for human
resource - abilities of people used to provide products and services
in exchange for payment. Capital, inter alia, is needed for training
and salaries.
• Money, property that include factories, offices, equipment
(computers, machinery, etc.,) , is essential for the provision of
products and services. Communities, however, tend to overspend on
goods and services and as a result there’s always a shortage of
capital.
1.2.1 Public Administration in the Cycle of Meeting Needs
• The institutions responsible for meeting society’s needs are
government and private sector.
• Businesses and government institutions are therefore jointly
responsible for meeting the needs of society.
• Scarcity of resources forces society to make choices as to which
services and products should be made available to who and by whom
• Administrative differences do, however, exist between government
and private sector. These include:
Admin Differences Between Government and Business
Government Sector
Private Sector
Service provision to enhance
welfare of society is the
primary purpose .
Profit maximisation is the
primary purpose
Success rate of services and
welfare cannot be measured
as it is based on compromise,
consensus and democratic
participation.
Profit and loss figures can
enable measurement of
success.
Transparency enables public
to scrutinise functions and
service delivery.
Transparency is limited with
decisions being taken behind
closed doors.
Administration is politically
motivated.
Administration is
economically motivated.
Total population is the target . Selected buying public is the
target.
1.3 Locus and Focus of Public Administration
• Public administration is characterised by a dual meaning in that it can
be referred to as a discipline as well as an activity.
• To differentiate discipline from activity authorities have propounded
the terms “locus and “focus”
• Locus will make reference to the institution while focus will refer to
the discipline.
1.3.1 Locus of Public Administration
• In this instance public administration is seen as a series of activities
occurring in the public sector.
• These, inter alia, include policy-making, organising, financing and
control.
• Public administration, in any country, operates within a political
environment that comprises of a government.
• In a democracy , politicians and political office bearers elected to
represent the population, are responsible for policy making and most
important decisions that that influence wellbeing of communities.
• State departments, provincial departments and local government
bodies are created for purposes of implementing policies and
decisions. Public administration, as an activity, occurs within these
departments.
1.3.2 Focus of Public Administration
• This refers to subject matter pertaining to Public Administration
where the importance and application of democratic principles are
taught.
• These, inter alia, include transparency, accountability, management
of change, rule of law and human rights.
• Public administration, taught at academic institutions, has become a
focal point
of debate with regard to leadership, strategic
management, project management, service delivery and quality
management.
• Improved service delivery, transparency, accountability and economic
empowerment serve as vehicles for fostering good relations between
government and the electorate.
2 Concepts and Terminology
2.1 Introduction
• Clarity on terminology used in a discussion on theory can
prevent semantic confusion that would defeat the objective of
the discussion.
• Public Administration theories provide an understanding of
the relationship between theory and practice of managing
public affairs.
2.2 Concepts in Public Administration
(i) Public Accountability
• Government or it’s agent’s responsibility to realise set objectives
and account for such objectives in public.
• Public official has to accept public responsibility for his /her actions.
• The obligation of public functionaries to act in the public interest
and in accordance with the law.
(ii) Accounting Officer
• Official appointed to perform certain function on behalf of
Government
• Functions can, inter alia, include housing, education and health.
• The accounting officer is required to account for the manner in which
he/she accomplishes the task.
(iii) Acts
• Refers to laws passed by government in accordance with the
constitution of the country.
• An Act coverts to law via a process of policy making and sanctioned
by government.
(iv)Administration
• Process whereby human beings engage with each other to achieve
common goals.
• Found in all spheres of human activity especially in the operational
area of government.
• Specific function executed by officials in public institutions that
include state departments, provincial departments and local
governments.
• Period of office of a specific head of government or a political party.
(v) Administrative Functions
• Functions that are performed collectively by officials in public or
private sector.
• Functions include policy making, organising, human resource
management, financing, work methods and procedures and control
(generic processes).
• Constitutes thought processes and actions to set out and achieve
objectives.
(vi) Administrative System
• It’s a system that comprises:
• An environment that stimulates administration with resultant
products.
• Inputs that carry stimuli from environment to administration.
• Outputs that carry results from administrative action to environment.
• Conversion process that transforms inputs into outputs .
• Feedback -output of one period can serve as output of a later period.
(vii) Administrative Institutions
• State departments created by government to implement policies,
laws and decisions.
• Education Department created to provide educational services.
(viii) Administrative Processes
• Refers to administrative functions (financing, organising etc.,)
performed by public officials in state departments.
• Can also refer to the manner in which public institutions carry out
their tasks, take decisions and implement decisions.
(ix) Authority
• The ability of a person or a group to ensure that an organisation or
individuals act in a certain manner and to accept the control as
legitimate.
• There are three types of authoritative relations:
• Charismatic – Due to inherent personal traits. Loyalty of followers
can be inspired.
• Legal- rational – ideal bureaucratic system of authority where
relations are determined by rationally developed procedures.
• Traditional – legitimacy is accepted on the basis of patterns of control
inherited and have always been in existence. Based on who rules and
who are ruled.
(x) Bureaucracy
• Centralised authority with a graded system based on legislation with
a determined , official area of jurisdiction.
• Activities are specialized.
• Hierarchical division of authority with formal channels of
communication between levels.
• Work reduced to formal rules and procedures.
• Tasks are executed without personal feelings or favour (impersonal).
(xi) Decentralisation
• A condition where a considerable amount of authority and
subsequent authority and responsibility is vested in the hands of
subordinates.
• In the public sector it refers to the transfer of authority
administratively from a centralised authority to its field organisations.
Local administrative units, semi autonomous and parastatal
organisations, local governments and non- governmental
organisations.
(xii) Decision Making
• A management technique employed to reach decisions through
analysis of information and evaluating alternatives so that the “best”
line of action is adopted. Steps in the rational decision making
process include: Analysing the problem; collecting data; calssifying
and analysing the data; preparing the data; cataloguing alternative
solutions; evaluating the alternatives; taking the decision;
implementing the decision; and obtaining the feedback on the
decision.
(xiii) Development
• Three important aspects of development include:
• Enhancing peoples level of living - variables in this aspect include
income, food, medical care etc.;
• Enhancing peoples self esteem – this can be achieved through the
creation of social, economic and political systems and institutions
which promote human dignity and respect; and
• Freedom to choose – increase varieties of products so that people can
choose in accordance with their capabilities.
(xiv) Development Management
• Refers to the improvement of techniques, processes and systems so
as to enhance the capacities of a group, community or society
particularly in third world or developing countries.
• Development managers are, in respect of professional ethos, are
require to: earn public trust; service society and provide protection
for the disadvantaged.
(xv) Governance
• Refers to the ordering of a group, community or osciety by a public
authority.
• The rationale for such ordering include maintenance of law and
order, defence of society against external enemies and to enhance
the welfare of communities.
(xvi) Government
• This refers to a body of persons and institutions responsible for
decision making and enforcing such decisions in the interest of
society.
• Functions of government are generally divided into the horizontal
categories of legislative, executive and judicial authority.
• On a vertical level governments can be divided into central, regional,
metropolitan, local and rural authorities.
• Governments can be democratic, autocratic, socialist and nationalist.
• The effectiveness of a government is possible if it has authority,
public support, and stability to enforce law and order.
(xvii) Organisation
• An organization refers to a co-operative dynamic system
characterized by continual adaptation to its physical, biological and
social environments.
• It is an open, dynamic and complex system that comprises human
elements, physical elements, work units, resources, boundaries and
consumers.
• The actions of its members are co-ordinated to enhance individual
effort aimed at goal accomplished.
• It is mission driven and goal directed and at any given time has a
deliberately structured activity system.
• Boundaries are identifiable with generalized and specific task
environments.
• There are various internal and external actors and stakeholders with
specific needs and expectations in exchange for the organizations
survival, growth and development.
(xviii) Organisational Development (objectives)
• Organisational Development refers to an educational strategy applied
to bring about planned organizational change. It’s objectives include
• The creation of an open problem solving climate throughout the
organization
• The authority associated with role and status supplemented with the
authority of knowledge and skill
• The source of information should, ideally, be responsible for problem
solving and decision making
• The promotion of confidence among members (individuals and
groups) throughout the organisation
• Develop a system of compensation that acknowledges both
performance and its development (growth).
• Create a feeling of “ownership” of organisational objectives
throughout the organization
• Increase the self-control and the self direction of people within the
organization.
• Assist managers to manage in accordance with relevant objectives
rather than objectives that do not make sense in terms of their
responsibility.
(xix) Policy
• Policies refer to guidelines or statement of goals found in an
institution that are implemented to deal with a particular problem
and phenomenon or a set of problems and phenomenon impacting
on the institution
• It is a guide to action that is required to be followed by individuals in
the organization so as to provide consistency of decisions.
• Institutional goals and objectives, methods to realize these goals and
objectives – steps that can be taken to achieve objectives and goals
of the institution.
• Policies include, inter alia, – political policy, strategic policy,
operational policy, and long and short term policy.
(xx) Principles of Administration (PODSCORB)
• Planning – It defines, very broadly, what’s to be done and how it has
to be done in order to achieve the organization’s objectives.
• Organising – A formal structure of authority through which the
division of labour is arranged, defined and co-ordinated for realizing
the organisation’s objectives.
• Staffing – Involves the complete personnel function. The supply and
utilization of personnel and ensuing favourable conditions of
employment.
• Directing – The continuous task of serving as leader and making
decisions and translating them into specific and general commands
and instructions.
• Co-ordinating - Uniting of the various elements of work
• Reporting – superiors and subordinates are informed of progress
through records, research and inspection.
• Budgeting – comprises fiscal planning, accountability and control.
(xx) Politics
• Decisions as to who receives what, where and when.
• The process is one of conflict resolution which determines the
apportionment of resources, the process by which power is applied
in order to determine whether and how government is to be
exercised in any given area.
• Responsibility distribution, equity, rule of law, representation and
morality constitute political issues in public management.
(xxi) Public Accountability
• Public functionaries are under obligation to act in the public interest
and in accordance with his/her conscience. There should be
solutions to every matter based on professionalism and
participation.
(xxii) Public Administration
• The Government’s or Civil Service’s executive branch responsible for
formulation, implementation, evaluation and modification of
government policy.
• The pillars of public administration include organisational behaviour
and behaviour of people in organisations; technology of
management; and public interest with respect to individual ethical
choices and public affairs.
2.3 Public Administration as an Activity
• This refers to the work done by public officials within government
institutions in order to achieve their objectives (provision of goods
and servicers for the community they serve).
• It comprises three broad sets of activities:
• Administrative processes that include organising, policy making,
financing, work methods and procedures, human resource
management (personnel) and control.
• These processes are interdependent and overlap in their esecution.
• Line functions that include health, education, housing, building
roads, nursing patients and foreign affairs.
• Auxiliary functions that include decision making, communication,
research and development and data collection and analysis.
2.3.1 Generic Processes
(i) Policy making
• An umbrella process involving a series of functions carried out to
decide on a plan of action to achieve certain goals.
• These, inter alia, include identification of problems, investigations,
gathering of information and decision making.
• Foe example Health Policy at National level provides guidelines to
administer and manage health issues in the country.
• An hospital policy provides guidelines on treatment of large
numbers of patients within the hospital’s capacity and to the
satisfaction of patients.
(ii) Organising
• This involves the establishment of structures or institutions such as
health and education.
• Grouping of certain functional activities into specific structures eg.,
doctors and nurses.
(iii) Financing
• This entails obtaining, spending and controlling public funds.
• At national level provision is made for issuing of specific amounts to
particular institutions for cerain objectives and the control of such
funds.
• At the departmental level estimates of amounts required for
continuation of activities and control of funds being spent.
(iv) Personnel Provision and Utilisation
• Making personnel available and [placing them in suitable positions
and developing them.
• At the national level the Public Service Act makes provision for this
generic process.
• At the departmental level the process constitutes recruiting,
selecting, placing and using personnel meaningfully.
(v) Determination of Work Procedures
• At national level the legislature determines the procedures to be
followed in executing certain activities.
• At the departmental level it involves determining procedures
applicable within a department or division.
(vi) Control
• This process ensures that all administrative activities are executed in
an effective and efficient manner in achieving objectives.
• At national level specific measures are set and bodies created to
exercise control (Acts and regulations).
• At the departmental level there are internal controls that include
internal audits, reports and inspections.
• Regulators (Acts, Policies, Procedures and Standards) enable
officials to carry out their responsibilities effectively and efficiently
within the context of the six generic processes.
2.4 Public Administration and Social Science Disciplines
1 Introduction
• Public administration, according to Coetzee (1988), is made up of a
distinct collection of processes that cannot operate in isolation
• Since public administrators perform their functions in conjunction
with practioners from other sciences, the discipline of public
administration should be approached from interdisciplinary and
multidisciplinary perspectives
• Social scientists from diverse academic backgrounds study societal
problems through team effort. Interests tend to overlap with each
expert contributing his/her own point of view – the whole leading to
a comprehensive picture and co-operative assessment
• The diversity and inter-relatedness of social problems can best be
understood through the application of knowledge and skills accruing
from all or most social science disciplines that, inter alia, include
Sociology, Political Science and Industrial Psychology
• 2 Public Administration and Sociology
• Sociology , defined as “ the science of social relationships, the
consequences of those relationships for ongoing social systems, and
the processes of social change, emphasizes beliefs, values, moral
rules and symbolic communications that form the distinct features of
human life
• From a contemporary perspective sociology is characterized by :
union of idealism and positivism, union of theory and research,
renewed attention to social dynamics and decline of cultural
relativity.
• For any society to continue as a social system certain functions have
to be performed. These include: legitimate reproduction,
socialization, assignment of roles and positions, assignment of control
of power, maintenance of values and the maintenance of motivation.
• Expansion and specialization, increased emphasis on measurement
and extension into applied fields are additional trends in Sociology
with respect to teaching, research and practical application.
• From the above it is evident that a relationship exists between
Sociolgy and public administration.
• Class structure, demography, ecology and vocational groups (aspects
of sociology) are of special importance to students of public
administration as well to the public administrator.
• The formal and informal aspects of organization studied in Sociology
also feature quite significantly in public administration.
• Studies involving ethnic relations (sociology) in a specific are of
immense value to policy makers and administrators of that particular
community
• The significance of ethnic relations in South Africa, a multi racial
state, cannot be over- emphasized.
3 Public Administration and Industrial Psychology
• Psychology, according to Funk and Wagnalis (19990) can be defined
as the systematic investigation of mental phenomena, especially
those associated with consciousness, behavior, and the problems of
adjustment to the environment.
• The behaviour of public officials can influence the success of public
institutions and it can therefore be stated that a thorough knowledge
of Psychology is of immense value to public administrators.
• Industrial Psychology, in particular, is very relevant as it focuses on
the theories, procedures and techniques with respect to selection.
Training, counselling and supervision of personnel .
• Information relating to the morale of personnel, fatigue, personnel
turnover and the work environment, emphasized in Psychology, are
of great importance to public managers.
• 4 Public Administration and Political Science
• Political Science is concerned with the systematic analysis of
government, its processes, forms of organization, institutions and
purposes.
• It (Pol Sc) has many contacts with other social science disciplines but
more pertinently and recently with the discipline of Public
Administration.
• Political Science focuses on public institutions from a political context
while Public Administration looks at the internal functioning of
executive public institutions.
• Despite the marked difference each of these disciplines has its own
focus on some phenomena that are common to both disciplines.
• For example A farmers Association from a Political Science
perspective is a political group that can influence political elections.
• From a Public Administration perspective these associations are
clients for public services and groups acting collectively as agricultural
boards that co-operate with public institutions in implementation of
policy.
• The close relationship between these disciplines has resulted in them
being referred to as sister disciplines.
• They have equal status in the field of government and administration
and therefore a knowledge of both would contribute to the insight
and proficiency of experts in both fields.
• Some authorities eg.,Cloete are of the conviction that neither of the
disciplines are dependent or subordinate to each other
5 Conclusion
• The study and research of class structure, demography, ecology and
vocational groups and institutions are common to both Sociology and
Public Administration. It is therefore of significance for public
administrators to be knowledgeable of theories relating to Sociology
• From the above it is evident that Psychology focuses on the study of
an individual’s mental faculties, emotions, traits, operations, powers
and adjustment to the environment. In this context the behaviour of
public officials can influence the success of public institutions
3 Basic Theories in Public Administration
1 Introduction
•Knowledge production and an understanding of the world we live in are
two general goals of scientific research.
•Discovery of facts and general laws enables the production and
increase in knowledge.
•The construction of explanations from the gained knowledge and
assembling such knowledge and explanations into systematic theories
enhances an individual’s understanding of the world.
•The theories, apart from being used to predict and bring about reform,
can also serve as valuable tools in understanding, explaining and
predicting administrative phenomena.
•Theories enable decision making in generic administrative functions
that include policy-making, organizing, financing, personnel provision
and utilization, work methods and procedures and control.
1.1Administrative Theory
•Administrative theory enables students and practioners of public
administration, inter alia, to:
•Explain administrative phenomena or activities
•Summarise known information
•Predict and investigate relationships between events
•Help to identify important aspects of a problem or a specific situation.
•Set criteria for the selection of important information in decision
making
2 Developmental Phases of Management Theories
•Development of management as a discipline and an activity is
characterized by three phases which are a consequence of the
development of theory and its application in practice.
•These three phases are scientific management phase, the behavioural
phase and contingency phase.
2.1 The Scientific Management Phase
•Mass production, a consequence of the Industrial Revolution, increased
the demand for goods such as coal. This, in turn, resulted in bottlenecks
which, inter alia, included:
•Urgent need for greater efficiency
•Unsatisfactory manner in which affairs were administered
•Uncertainty with respect to availability of natural resources and labour
to satisfy manufacturing demands
•To overcome the above Frederick Taylor developed framework for
scientific management with the following principles:
•Determine the single most efficient way to undertake each task so as
to achieve the best results
•Scientific selection of personnel
•Remuneration in accordance with production as opposed to basic
salary
•Distinction between responsibilities of management and that of
workers
•Emphasis was on productivity where activities and time in the
workplace were measured
•Workers became an extension of the machines as a means of
production
2.2 The Behavioural or People Oriented Phase
•Research such as the Hawthorne Studies indicates that financial gain
and pleasant work conditions are not necessarily the motivating factors
to increase productivity among workers
•The individuality of human beings and their importance in the
workplace must be recognized
•The analysis of workers behavior is emphasized in this phase
2.3 The Contingency Theory Phase
•This theory, developed in the late 1950’s was a consequence of:
•Development and refinement of production processes.
•Service provision.
•Increase in job specialization.
•Diversity and complexity of all aspects of management.
•According to this approach optimal management and productivity is
influenced by particular environments and circumstances with which
managers function.
•The conclusion reached in this approach is that there is no single
optimum style of management - a particular environment and
circumstances will determine the style of management.
3 Management Theories
•Theories and approaches to the study of Public Administration and
public management are a consequence of the science of human
behavior and interaction, environmental influences and the analytical
capabilities of theorists
•One can quite easily distinguish the phases of development of specific
approaches
•Some academics and theorists, however, adhere to older established
approaches or combine them with more recent developments
3.1 Multi-disciplinary Approach
•Public administration, from a social science perspective, cannot be
studied in isolation or in a vacuum.
•The approach will therefore be from that of an interdisciplinary or
multidisciplinary one
•The multidisciplinary approach enables the student or researcher of
public administration to draw to draw on other related disciplines,
certain theories and concepts so as to address complex issues
•Team effort characterizes this approach. The team comprises scientists
from both the social science and natural science domains
•This approach forms the relationship between Public Administration
and other sciences
3.2 Generic Process Approach
•This approach, propounded by Cloete in 1997, states that Public
Administration is based on six generic processes
•The generic processes include policy-making, organizing, financing,
personnel provision and utilization, determining work methods and
procedures and control
•The processes are inter-related, interdependent and mutually inclusive.
For example the formulation of a policy requires personnel, people and
work need to be organized to formulate the policy.
• 3.3 Systems Approach
• A system, according to this approach, comprises a number of
interdependent sub-systems which function as a whole
• Public managers are required to view an institution as a whole within
a bigger system
• Institutions are open systems that interact with environment from
which they receive inputs
• Conversion of inputs occur within the institution with outputs being
returned to the
• For example a community has a need – conveyed to government as
an input which is debated, discussed and decided upon in legislature
– conversion process – draft legislation is drawn up – finally approved
Act is promulgated and becomes official policy – output – feedback
from the environment relates to consequences of the output
• This approach serves as a valuable conceptual framework for the
creation of greater awareness of the critical elements that influence
the functioning of public managers and institutions.
4 The Public Management Environments
4.1 Introduction
•The public management environment is one of dynamism.
•An institution’s form and functionality, to a large extent, is determined
by the constant interaction between the environment and the
institution.
•Changes in environmental conditions will inevitably force management
to make adjustments in order to survive.
•The public management environment is characterized by:
Complexity – There are times when public managers are required to
take decisions for political gains rather than in the best interest of the
community at large. Such decisions cannot be reconciled with practical
realities eg demand for services may exceed budget
Uncertainty – This a reality in the public environment – There is no
absolute certainty whether a particular service will have the desired
results or whether a policy will receive the necessary support from the
public
•The extent of uncertainty can be alleviated if accurate and relevant
information can be obtained about the change in the environment.
Very little information and a lack of interest on the part of public
managers will result in an increase in environmental uncertainty
Interdependence – Environmental variables are interdependent in any
environment.
•For example urbanisation can influence other variables that include
urban poverty, unemployment, housing shortage, crime and the
disintegration of families
Instability – A consequence of the interdependent nature of variable in
the public management environment is increasing stability.
•The public manager is confronted constantly confronted with change
and instability
•This interdependent nature of the variables and subsequent instability
needs to be taken into account with respect to decision making,
strategic planning and budgeting
4.2 Environmental Levels and Components
• Three interdependent open systems constitute the management
environment that can be studied as separate entities with certain
characteristics and influences
• Macro Environment – comprises cultural, political, legal, economic,
social and technological environments
• Intermediate Environment – comprises consumers or services and/or
services (community) suppliers if resources, competitors for limited
resources, and intermediaries performing certain functions of linkage
between the macro and micro environments
• Micro environment – constitutes all internal processes, activities, and
functions carried out within an institution. Core components include
institution’s mission, goal, strategy, internal regulators and resources
** Power Point Slides will focus on Macro Environment with reference
to Social, Political and Economic variables. Students are urged to
study the balance of this section in study guide.
4.3 The Macro or External Environment
• The macro or general environment comprises six elements that
include political, economic, legal, social, technological and cultural
components
• These six components encompass international boundaries and
physical elements
• They are interdependent with no distinctions between them
• Events in any one of these environments can lead to changes in other
environments
4.3.1 Political Environment
• This component of the macro environment affects all activities of a
public manager as they (activities) are influenced by the system of
government,
• the constitution, the bill of rights, and the nature, promulgation and
implementation of laws
• It also comprises regulations through which the authorities regulate
the structures and processes.
4.3.1.1 Responsibilities of Public Managers in a Political Context
Stability – Promotion of stability with the primary goal being socioeconomic care and development of the population
Orderliness and service orientation help to maintain stability or restore
stability where it has been disturbed
Majority of employees in the public sector - as a result of their training,
experience and values, strive for stability in their actions
Political Guidance – Public managers, as executors of the government,
are involved in the establishment of political guidance and ideology for
the improvement of the improvement of the overall welfare of the
public
Nation Building – this is promoted by public managers by reconciling
identities, values, symbols and interests
Misconceptions and social distances are eliminated through sufficient
information
Affirmative Action – Effectiveness and efficiency of services to the
public has to be considered when implementing affirmative action.
•Experience, in-service training and knowledge of the practice and
functions of public administration should remain as the most important
requirements
Legitimisation - The legitimization of public service, structures and
interest groups is the responsibility of the government
•During a transitional process public managers are required to ensure
that services to the public are maintained at a level of maximum
efficiency
Democratic Principles – Public managers are required to pursue the
objectives of the people’s representatives without any infringement on
people’s rights and freedom
•Political officials are to take responsibility for actions of public
managers and the latter to be held accountable for actions of
subordinates
No public funds should be wasted as a result of inefficient work
4.3.2 Social Environment
• The nature, quantity and distribution of human resources fall within
the ambit of the social environment
• The social environment is significant in government action and
processes as all government activities impact directly on people
• In order obviate tensions public managers are required to be familiar
with a community’s culture, needs, preferences, beliefs, language and
traditions
4.3.2.1 Social Responsibilities of Public Managers
• Public managers are required to meet certain requirements in terms
of social responsibility that include:
• Must be in keeping with expectations of community
• It has to be a long term right
• Enable an institution to a positive public image through ethical
actions
•
•
•
•
Balance between responsibility and power
Effective use of resources
Transforms threats into opportunities
Social mangers, in undertaking these activities, are confronted with
major social issues that include:
4.3.2.1.1 Population Growth
• Census indicates that population growth in south Africa is about 5
million people every 3.6 years
• The population was also more urbanized and younger
• Public managers, as a result of this rate of population growth, are
confronted with low economic growth, high employment rate, high
government spending and taxes, inflation and food prices
4.3.2.1.2 Urbanisation and Housing
• The current trend in most developing countries is for people to
migrate from rural to urban areas in pursuit of a better quality of life
•Local government is confronted with immense pressure with respect to
employment, housing, services, transport, infrastructure etc
•Some 750 000 people are moving from rural to urban areas per year
•In terms of housing alone the government is required to build some
500 houses per year. This together with other requirements impact
significantly on management functions
4.3.2.1.3 Aids
•AIDS cases, currently regarded as the most important element in health
care, is doubling every 8.5 months. The effects include:
•Loss of human resources
•Implications for recruitment and training staff
Loss of labour productivity
•Loss of effectiveness and efficiency
•Direct and indirect health costs
•Interruption of production process
•Higher costs of employee benefits
4.3.2.1.4 Health Services
•Rapid population growth means more clinics and medical staff
•Lack of infrastructure and trained health care staff poses serious
problems for public managers
4.3.3 Economic Environment
•Government’s main aim in the economic environment is the provision
of goods and services to the community so as to improve their welfare.
•Public managers need to be fully informed of the economic realities of
the country as the information will assist in budgeting.
•Business cycles, inflation and recession are variables that influence the
economy of a country.
•This in turn impacts on goods and services made available by public
managers
•Government officials are required to react to any significant change in
economic environments.
5 Democratic Principles as Guidelines for Public Administration
5.1 Introduction
• The Republic of South Africa, governed by a democratically elected
government, is still in it’s infancy with regard to democracy as per the
definition.
• Democracy can be defined as government from and for the people.
In a democracy conditions are conducive for individuals to achieve
the greatest degree of individual well-being provided she/he abides
by the law.
• In any democracy a constitution is an essential component.
• The constitution of the Republic of South Africa, highly respected all
over the world, entrenches human rights in it’s Bill of Rights.
5.2 Human Rights in the Bill of Rights
• The Bill of Rights comprises several human rights, all of which
promote human well-being. These, inter alia, include:
(i) Equality before the law
• Individuals have the right to equality before the law. No person’/s
may directly or indirectly be favoured, adversely affected or
prejudiced by legislation or any executive or administrative action on
the basis of race, colour, religion, language, sex, ethnic origin, social
status, birth, political or any other affiliation.
(ii) The right to life
• Every individual has the right to the protection of his/her life. This is
of particular significance since South Africa is a heterogeneous
society with several religious denominations that do not accept the
Bible as a basic doctrine and subsequently do not subscribe to the
Ten Commandments.
(iii) The right to privacy
•This right affords individuals the right to the protection of his or her
personal privacy.
•It includes the right to individual’s property, place of employment and
residence not to be entered;
• No person shall be searched;
•There shall be no interference with or interception of his/her
correspondence, telephonic conversations or any other form of
communications.
(iv) The Right to linguistic and cultural rights
•South Africa is characterized by a heterogeneous society.
• The human right protects individual’s right with regard to religion,
conscience and divine worship.
(v) Right to freedom of speech
•This is a fundamental right where the individual has the right to
freedom of speech or any other expression including the right to obtain
information and make it publicly available through the press or any
other media.
•There are, however, stipulations with respect to limitations and
restriction.
• This can include blasphemy, defamatory statements, indecent or
offensive publications.
(vi) The right to freedom of association
•Individuals have the right to associate and disassociate with other
individuals and groups.
• No administrative action should restrain the individual from this right
of association.
(vii) Right o freedom of movement
• An individual has the right to move freely across the country and in
that he/she can choose to work and live in an environment of his/her
choice.
• This right also enables individuals to obtain passports so that he/she
may travel to the country of his/her choice.
• People cannot be prevented from emigrating.
(viii) Right to property
• Each person or group has the right to acquire property and use it as
he/she chooses.
• In cases of expropriation of property, appropriate and effective
legislation has to be in place to authorize the payment of a fair and
just compensation for the appropriated property.
(ix) Environmental Rights
• In a world dominated by industries and subsequent pollution from
industries, individuals need to be protected from such pollution.
• According to this right no person should be exposed to an
environment that is dangerous or detrimental to his/her health.
(x) Political rights
• Each person has the right to freely establish a political party or to
have membership of any political party.
• He/she cannot b e forced to belong to any particular political party or
be forced to participate in the activities of any particular political
party.
(xi) Other human rights
• Rights to citizenship; Domicile rights; Arrested person’s rights; Labour
relations right; Economic enterprise rights; and Natural justice rights.
5.3 Rule of Law Principle
• According to this principle law is supreme in authority whereby
people in a democracy are not governed by arbitrary judgement and
personal whims of public officials.
• There are statutory and common laws that can be implemented in
the event of misdemeanours and offences. Verdicts can be sought in
accordance with legal requirements.
• Three other principles pertaining to the rule of law. These are:
• An executive official may not have authority to the extent that she/he
can manipulate the administration and apply laws arbitrarily.
• All citizens of a democratic state , irrespective of their race, gender or
religion, are equal before the law.
• Functions pertaining to the judiciary must be executed by suitably
qualified personnel who cannot be part of the legislative or executive
authority.
5.4 Government by the People for the People
• The principle of free general elections without any coercion is a
prominent characteristic if democracy.
• There are, however, citizens that do not qualify to participate in
elections. These include criminals, mentally ill patients and those
guilty of treason. These persons are not entitled to pass judgement
on the quality of government and administration.
• Elections enable where registered voters to indicate their preference
for a government, legislative body or head of state by means of a
ballot box.
• The aims, objectives and policy directives of the party in power are
implemented by public officials.
• Public officials or civil servants perform their functions with the
consent of the majority of the voters.
• It is the public that bestows power and authority on civil servants –
including their salaries.
• The public official is a servant of society and should serve society and
as such should heed the following principles:
• A public servant has to abide by the rule of law and may only act
upon the authority bestowed upon her/him through political
supremacy;
• Actions and malpractices in public administration are the
responsibility of public officials and political office bearers (ministers)
and as such they are required to be publicly accountable;
• Expenditure of public funds must be done with circumspection and
efficiency;
• Administrative actions that, inter alia, include reasonableness, equity,
fairness, validity and legality must comply with principles of justice;
• Religious, cultural, social and economical values of society are to be
considered in the execution of government policy and application of
administration;
• Public officials, apart from striving towards excellence and efficiency,
should also maintain ethical norms and standards such as honesty,
sincerity, benevolence, kindness, politeness and affability; and
• Distinctions with regard to race, colour, gender, religion or ethnicity
are not in keeping with the principle of equity and social justice and
as such public officials, in executing their functions, are required to
abide by this principle.
• Public officials are servants of the public and not rulers of the public.
They need to give as much as they can to society in terms of police
protection, licences, concessions, approvals , grants etc.
• Public servants cannot act on the same principle of a private business
manager who takes as much as he/she can from society in his/her
pursuit of profit.
5.5 Order and Welfare Functions of the Democratic State
• The establishment of government departments, divisions, sections
and other public entities are perform functions that will ensure the
continued existence of the population. These include;
(i) Protective Function of the State
• To defend the state against foreign aggressors;
• To maintain law and order as well as to prevent anarchy, chaos,
riotousness, and lawlessness;
• To prescribe regulations and bylaws to ensure order, peace and
prosperity with the state; and
• To prevent carefree exploitation of the environment for selfish
human interest.
(ii) Functions of Advancement
• Necessary measures and instruments need to be developed by public
institutions in order that the needs, desires and demands of society
are satisfied;
• To ensure that society develops and progresses through education
and training, human resource planning, cultural enrichment, scientific
advancement, promotion of sport and recreation and promotion of
family development and public information;
• To create wealth through the encouragement of a free market
system, distribution of goods and services, creating job opportunities
and development of infrastructures;
• To develop welfare and social services by means of providing housing,
Community services, public healthy, family planning and social security;
and
• To promote foreign interest through establishing the establishment of
foreign missions and consuls.
(iii) Implementation and Facilitating Functions
• Governments, in order to execute its functions satisfactorily, requires
several support structures that include policy making institutions,
financial institutions, personnel recruitment institutions, domestic
auxiliary functions and control bodies.
• It is essential for central government to create such structures or take
statutory measures for such functions to be performed by
commercial organisations.
• Past experiences indicate that activities of executive departmemnts
did not concur with the objectives of central government.
Consequently certain activities are being reviewed in the light of
them being outsourced to private sector.
Self Study
• Students are required to read the following self explanatory sections
in the module study guide:
(i) Guidelines emanating from the Body Politic;
(ii) Public Accountability;
(iii) Guidelines emanating from Community Values; and
(iv) Prescribed Guidelines;