Transcript Retreat 2004

EDM 6402
Qualitative Method in Educational Research
Lecture 6
Comparative-Historical Study
and Educational Institutions
1
2
South Korea
教育改革行動方案
行政院八十七年五月廿九日
台八十七教字第二六六九八號核定
壹、前言
政府為有效推動教育改革工作，於教育部召開第七次全國教育會議之後，在
八十三年九月二十一日成立「行政院教育改革審議委員會」
，該委員會歷經兩年
審慎研議，於八十五年十二月二日提出「教育改革總諮議報告書」
，揭櫫教育改
革五大方向：一、教育鬆綁；二、帶好每位學生；三、暢通升學管道；四、提升
教育品質；五、建立終身學習社會，及八大改革之重點項目。嗣後，教育部融合
「教育改革總諮議報告書」之具體建議，及「中華民國教育報告書－邁向二十一
世紀的教育遠景」
、
「中華民國身心障礙教育報告書」
、
「中華民國原住民教育報告
書」等長期研議之施政構想，於八十六年七月提出「教育改革總體計畫綱要」
，
並根據三十大項計畫綱要，研提具體的中長程計畫十八種、實施方案十二種，以
為全面推動落實教育改革工作之依據。惟因整體教育改革工程，所涉範疇含蓋教
育部整體業務，為明教育改革重點，乃根據行政院教育改革推動小組第六次會議
之決議，綜合「教育改革總諮議報告書」及「教育改革總體計畫綱要」
，擇取重
點關鍵項目，彙成本行動方案，一以整合行政院各相關部會之力量戮力促成，二
為嗣後考核教改成效之指標。
Towards a General Theory of Social Action
• Towards a General Theory of Social Action of
Institutionalized Values
– Weber defines that “sociology is a science concerning
itself with interpretive understanding of social action
in order thereby to arrive at a causal explanation of its
course and consequence.” (Weber, 1976, p. 209)
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Towards a General Theory of Social Action
• Towards a General Theory of Social Action of
Institutionalized Values
– This definition has not only initiated the interpretive
tradition in social sciences, it has also stipulated the
tradition of verifying causal explanation of regularities
in social action. In fact, these two research approach,
which Weber has rightly characterized as two integral
objectives that future sociologists must strive for, are
currently juxtaposed by most practicing social
researchers as two uncompromised camps, namely
positivistic approach striving for universally
predictable causality and interpretative approach
striving for empathetically understanding of
subjectivity.
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Towards a General Theory of Social Action
• Towards a General Theory of Social Action of
Institutionalized Values
– As Jürgen Habermas points out: “How are general
theories of social action possible? General theories
allow use to derive assumptions about empirical
regularities in the form of hypotheses that serve the
purpose of explanation. At the same time, and in
contradistinction to natural processes, regularities of
social action have the property of being
understandable. Social action belongs to the class of
intentional actions, which we grasp by reconstructing
their meaning.” (Habermas, 1988, p. 11)
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Towards a General Theory of Social Action
• Towards a General Theory of Social Action of
Institutionalized Values
(1929 19
Towards a General Theory of Social Action
• Towards a General Theory of Social Action of
Institutionalized Values
– According to Haberman the missing link between
intentional-subjective symbolic action and causalpredictable regularities in social actions is
“institutional values”. As Habermas underlines
“sociology is concerned only with institutional values.
We can now formulate our question in amore specific
form: How are general theories of action in
accordance with institutionalized values (or prevailing
norms) possible?” (Habermas, 1988, p. 75)
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What is Institutions?
• The meaning of institutions: A social
phenomenological perspective
– Habitualization of actions: According to the social
phenomenologist, in order to make human interaction
possible, interacting partners have to go through a
series of decision making on definitions of situation,
typifications, and reciprocity of perspectives, therefore
human interactions and human activities in general
have the tendency to become habitualized. That is
"any action that is repeated frequently becomes cast
into a pattern, which can then be produced with an
economy of effort and which, ipso facto, is apprehended
by its performer as that pattern." (Berger and
Luckmann, 1967, p. 70-71)
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What is Institutions?
• The meaning of institution: A social
phenomenological perspective:
– Habitualization of meanings: "Habitualized actions, of
course, retain their meaningful character for the
individual although the meanings involved become
embedded as routines in his general stock of
knowledge, taken for granted by him and at hand for
the projects into the future. …Habitualization makes it
unnecessary for each situation to be defined anew,
step by step. A large variety of situation may be
subsumed under its predefinitions." (Berger and
Luckmann, 1967, p.71)
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What is Institutions?
• The meaning of institution: A social
phenomenological perspective:
– "Institutionalization occurs whenever there is a
reciprocal typification of habitualized actions by types
of actors. Put differently, any such typification is an
institution." (Berger and Luckmann, 1967, p. 72)
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What is Institutions?
• The meaning of institution: A social
phenomenological perspective:
– The reciprocal typification of habitualized actions
constituted within an institution implies the following
structural features of an institution:
• Historicity: "Reciprocal typifications of actions are built
up in the course of a shared history. They cannot be
created instantaneously. Institutions always have a
history, of which they are the products. It is impossible to
understand an institution adequately without an
understanding of the historical process in which it was
produced." (Berger and Luckmann, 1967, p.72) This
structural feature of historicity of institution implies an
essential methodological implication in the study of
institution, that is, study the historical configuration, from
which the current institution emerged and developed, is
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vital to any institutional analysis.
What is Institutions?
• The meaning of institution: A social
phenomenological perspective:
– Structure features of an institution:
• Social control: "Institutions …, by the very fact of their
existence, control human conduct by setting up
predefinied patterns of conduct, which channel it in one
direction as against the many other directions that would
theoretically be possible. …These mechanism (the sum of
which constitute what is generally called a system of
social control) do …exist in many institutions and in all
the agglomerations of institutions that we call
societies. …To say that a segment of human activity has
been institutionalized is already to say that this segment
of human activity has been subsumed under social
control." (p. 72-73)
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What is Institutions?
• The meaning of institution: A social
phenomenological perspective:
– Structure features of an institution:
• Socialization: As a set of reciprocal typifications of
habitualized actions has achieved its historicity, i.e.
proven its social efficacy through time and has further
been backed up by social control mechanism, it can be
said that this set of intersubjectivity has been externalized
and objectivated. However to complete the cycle of
institutionalization, this intersubjectivity must in turn be
internalized into the subjectivity of the new members of a
culture. It is by means of socialization, acculturation,
education, or even indoctrination that new members will
acquire the "common-sense knowledge" necessary to be
able to become fully functional members of a culture.
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What is Institutions?
• The meaning of institution: A social
phenomenological perspective:
– Structure features of an institution:
• Legitimation
– Explanation of cognitive validity
– Justification of normative dignity
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Comparative-Historical Methods in
Institutional Studies
• Jürgen Schreiwer, a researcher in comparative
education, suggests that education institution can be
studies with the "functional-cum-configurational"
approach. More specifically, it is a combination of
both functional comparative method with
configurational-historical method. (2003) Accordingly,
the research methods in educational institution
studies to be explicated are:
– Functional-comparative approach
– Configurational-historical approach
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Functional Equivalence Perspective in
Comparative Studies
• The concept of functional equivalence:
– The concept of function: Jurgen Schriewer defines
function as "the performance achieved for the
maintenance of whole entities or systems by elements
of such entities or component parts of such system."
(Schreiwer, 2003, p. 37)
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Functional Equivalence Perspective in
Comparative Studies
• The concept of functional equivalence:
– The concept of functional prerequisite: According to
traditional functionalists, such as A,R. Radcliff-Brown and
Talcott Parsons, function are conceived as "necessary
conditions of existence" of social systems (Kincaid, 2007,
p.217). Parsons further specifies these functional
prerequisites of social systems into four (Kincaid, 2007,
p.217)
• adaptation ― obtaining resource from the environment
• integration ― maintain coherent relationship among their
component elements
• goal attainment ― setting goals and allocating resources to
achieve them
• latency ― reproducing organizational structure and managing
tension between units.
– Parsons asserts that these four functions are prerequisites
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of the existence of social system.
Functional Equivalence Perspective in
Comparative Studies
• The concept of functional equivalence:
– Critique on functional prerequisites: Functionalists' strong
version of defining functions as "the prerequisites" and
"necessary condition of the existence" of social system and
Parsons' specification of them into four AGIL constituents
have been criticized as too deterministic.
31
Functional Equivalence Perspective in
Comparative Studies
• The concept of functional equivalence:
– Critique on functional interconnection and equilibrium
theses: G.A. Cohen in his explication of the functional
explanation thesis in Marxism criticizes the functionalists'
assumption that all constituents in a social system are
"functionally connected" and "support or reinforce one
another" and suggests that this assumption is not necessary
in the logical structure of a functional explanation. (Cohen,
1978, p. 283-285) This implicates that some constituents of a
social system may be dysfunctionally or even
antagonistically connected with the essential core of a given
social system. As a result, the thesis of totality of functional
connection can be forsaken and so is the thesis of
equilibrium and benign stability of the social system.
32
Functional Equivalence Perspective in
Comparative Studies
• The concept of functional equivalence:
– To relax functionalists' assumptions on the functional
prerequisite and totality of functional interconnection, we
may simply redefine functions as contributions or benefits a
given constituent could offer to the maintaining of the
essential core of the social system. Accordingly, the
conception of functional prerequisite can be replaced by
functional equivalence. As a result, what we are looking for
are contributing and beneficial conditions instead of
necessary conditions (or even sufficient condition) for the
maintaining of the essential core of the social system.
Furthermore, the strong version of functionalists'
specification of functional prerequisites into AGIL can also
be relaxed.
33
Functional Equivalence Perspective in
Comparative Studies
•
Functional equivalence perspective in comparative
research
–
–
In comparing societies or particular institutions, such as
education, in different societies, concept of functional
equivalence can be served as heuristic concept to the
issue of comparability.
From the concept of functional equivalence, we may
initiate comparative research by posing "first that different
structures may perform the same function, and second,
that the same structure may perform several different
functions." (Dogan and Pelassy, 1984, p. 37)
34
Functional Equivalence Perspective in
Comparative Studies
•
Functional equivalence perspective in comparative
research
–
–
Conception of dissociation of functions and structures:
"The search for functional equivalences passes through
this analytical dissociation of roles and function. The same
performance may be accomplished in various countries by
different organs, and similar or comparable institutions
may fulfill, in various countries, different tasks." (Dogan
Pelassy, 1984, p. 37)
Accordingly, comparative researches may be categorized
as follows.
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Functional Equivalence Perspective in
Comparative Studies
Structures
Same
Same
Functional & structural
equivalence
Functions
Different
Functional
differentiation
Structural equivalence
Different
Functional
equivalence
Structural
differentiation
Functional & structural
Differentiation
36
Perspectives of Functional Equivalence in
Comparative Methods in Education
Research
• Functionalism:
– For education institution, Parsons underlines that
school class performs two essential functions to the
equilibrium of the social system of modern society.
•
•
Socialization function: "School class functions to
internalize in its pupils both the commitments and
capacities for successful performance of their future
adult roles." (Parson, 2004, p. 32)
Selection function: School class on the other hand
"functions to allocate these human resources within
role-structure of the adult society." (p. 32)
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Perspectives of Functional Equivalence in
Comparative Methods in Education
Research
• Functional explanation in Marxian perspective:
– The theory of equilibrium as "consequence law" in
functionalism has been criticized for conservative and
legitimatizing the status quo (Cohen, 1978, p.284;
Turner and Maryanski, 1995, p.55-56)
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Perspectives of Functional Equivalence in
Comparative Methods in Education
Research
• Functional explanation in Marxian perspective:
– G.A. Cohen, one of the prominent members of Analytical
Marxism, in reconstructing historical materialism offers a
selection theory through class struggle as the "consequence
law" for his functional explanations.
•
In the functional explanation of the relationship between force
of production and relation of production (class relation) Cohen
suggests
39
Perspectives of Functional Equivalence in
Comparative Methods in Education
Research
• Functional explanation in Marxian perspective:
– G.A. Cohen, …
•
"Classes are permanently poised against one another, and that
class tends to prevail whose rule would best meet the
demands of production. But how does the fact that production
would prosper under a certain class ensure its dominance?
Part of the answer is that there is a general stake in stable and
striving production, so that the class best placed to deliver it
attracts allies from other strata in society. Prospective ruling
classes are often able to raise support among the classes
subjected to the ruling class they would displace.
Contrariwise, classes unsuited to the task of governing society
tend to lack the confidence political hegemony requires, and if
they do seize power, they tend not to hold it for long." (Cohen,
1978, 292)
40
Perspectives of Functional Equivalence in
Comparative Methods in Education
Research
• Functional explanation in Marxian perspective:
– G.A. Cohen, …
•
•
In the functional explanation of the relationship between
infrastructure and superstructure, Cohen once again suggests
"All classes are receptive to whatever ideas are likely to benfit
them, and ruling classes are well placed to propagate
ideologies particular congenial to themselves. But before an
ideology is received or broadcast it has to be formed. And on
that point there are traces in Marx of a Darwinian mechanism, a
notion that thought-systems are produced in comparative
independence from social constraint, but persist and gain
social life for ideological service. …There is a kind of
'ideological pool' which yields elements in different
configurations as social requirements change." (Cohen, 1978,
p.291)
41
Perspectives of Functional Equivalence in
Comparative Methods in Education
Research
• Functional explanation in Marxian perspective:
– As for the functional explanation of education institution,
Marxist conceptions can be summarized into two counts
•
•
Reproduction function: As Louis Althuser indicates education
is part of the ideological apparatus of the state, which
performs the function of reproduction of the prevailing class
relation of a given society. (Althusser, 1971; Carnoy, 1982; see
also Bowles and Gintis, 1976; Bourdieu & Passeron, 1977;
Apple, 1979)
Legitimatizing function: Bowles and Gintis indicate that the
highly selective and competitive structure of education does
not only corresponds but in fact legitimatizing the inequality
found in the class structure of capitalist society. )Bowles &
Gintis, 1976)
42
Perspectives of Functional Equivalence in
Comparative Methods in Education
Research
• Functional explanation of education in Weberian
perspective
– Max Weber has rendered a function explanation of the
relationship between education contents and forms of
domination in societies. (Weber, 2004)
– Margret Archer has also expounded that domination
and assertion among status groups as the primary
factor contributing to education expansion in recent
decades.
43
Perspectives of Functional Equivalence in
Comparative Methods in Education
Research
• In light of these perspectives, the functional
equivalence comparison framework can be
elaborated as follow.
44
Structures
Same
Functionalism
Socialization
Function
Different
Same
different
Selection
Function
Same
Different
Marxism
Reproduction
Function
Same
Different
Weberian
Perspective
Legitimatizing
Function
Domination
Function
Same
Different
45
Configurational-Historical method in study
of morphogenesis of education institution
• Applying the general theory of functional equivalence
of development of education institutions in specific
national context, education researchers can
undertake historical-sociological studies on how
education institution is transformed within the social
and historical context of a particular society.
• There are varieties of approaches to historicalsociological studies of education institution, such as
– The Weberian historical-sociological approaches,
– The Marist historical-sociological approach,
– The new-institutionalist approach, etc.
• Methodological details of these approaches will be
46
explicated in EDM 6003.
Comparative-Historical Approach to
Global Education Reform of Neoliberalism
• Functional-equivalence comparative study of global
education reform
– Education Reform in the UK
•
•
Lifetime learning: A policy framework (1996)
The learning age: A renaissance for new Britain (1998)
– Education Reform in the US
•
•
•
Goal 2000 Act, 1994
A nation learning: Version for the 21st Century (1997)
No Child Left Behind Act of 2001
– Education Reform in Canada
•
•
Knowledge Matters: Skills and learning for Canadians (2002)
Achieving excellence: Investing in people, knowledge and
opportunity (2002)
47
Comparative-Historical Approach to
Global Education Reform of Neoliberalism
• Functional-equivalence comparative study of global
education reform
– Education Reform in Australia
•
•
•
National Board of Employment, Education and Training (1996)
Lifelong learning ―― Key issues
Dept. of Education, Science and Training (1998) Learning for
life: Review of higher education financing and policy (1998)
Dept. of Education, Science and Training (2003) Lifelong
learning in Australia
– Education Reform in South Korea
•
Ministry of Education Adapting Education to the Information
Age (2000-2004)
– Education Reform in Singapore:
•
Education for Learning Society in the 21st Century (2000)
48
Comparative-Historical Approach to
Global Education Reform of Neoliberalism
• Functional-equivalence comparative study of global
education reform
– Education Reform in Taiwan
• 教育改革行動方案, 1998
– Education Reform in HKSAR
•
Education Commission (2000) Education for Life and
Education through Life
– OECD (1991) The lifelong learners in the 1990s.
– OECD (1996) Lifelong learning for all.
– OECD (2001) Education policy analysis 2001.
– UNESCO (1996) Learning: The Treasure from within.
– European Commission (1995) Teaching and learning:
Towards the learning society
49
Comparative-Historical Approach to
Global Education Reform of Neoliberalism
• Configurational-historical study of global education
reform of HKSAR
50
Lecture 6
Comparative-Historical Study
of Educational Institutions
END
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