Transcript controlled substances

fifth edition
mastering the world of
psychology
CHAPTER
4
Consciousness
Copyright © 2014, © 2011, © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved
Learning Objectives
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
How do psychologists view consciousness?
What is the connection between altered
states of consciousness and culture?
How do circadian rhythms affect physiological
and psychological functions?
How do disruptions in circadian rhythms
affect the body and mind?
How do the restorative and circadian theories
explain sleep?
What types of sleep occur during a typical
night of sleep?
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Learning Objectives
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
How does age influence sleep patterns?
What are the effects of sleep deprivation?
What are the various sleep disorders?
What have researchers learned about
dreams?
4.11 How do the various theorists explain dreams?
4.12 What are the benefits of meditation?
4.13 How and why does hypnosis influence the
body and mind?
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Learning Objectives
4.14 How do drugs affect the brain's
neurotransmitter system?
4.15 How do physical and psychological drug
dependence differ?
4.16 How do stimulants affect behavior?
4.17 How do depressants affect behavior?
4.18 How do hallucinogens affect behavior?
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
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Overview
•
•
•
•
•
•
What Is Consciousness?
Circadian Rhythms
Sleep
Dreams
Meditation and Hypnosis
Psychoactive Drugs
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
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LO 4.1
What is Consciousness?
Changing Views of Consciousness
• Consciousness
– everything of which we are aware at
any given time
 thoughts, feelings, sensations, and
external environment
• Early Psychologists
– saw consciousness as psychological in
nature
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
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LO 4.1
What is Consciousness?
Changing Views of Consciousness
• Today's Psychologists
– think about consciousness in
neurobiological terms due to recent
scientific advances
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What is Consciousness? Culture and
Altered States of Consciousness
LO 4.2
• Altered State of Consciousness
– a change in awareness produced by
sleep, meditation, hypnosis, or drugs
• Religious and Cultural Traditions
– often have supernatural explanations for
altered states of consciousness
– Many have rituals that intentionally
induce altered states of consciousness.
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
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What is Consciousness? Culture and
Altered States of Consciousness
• There may be a universal human need
to produce and maintain varieties of
conscious experiences.
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LO 4.2
Circadian Rhythm: The Influence
of Circadian Rhythms
• Circadian Rhythm
 regular fluctuation from high to low
points of certain bodily functions and
behaviors within a 24-hour cycle
 regulate all vital life functions
 More than 100 bodily functions and
behaviors follow circadian rhythms.
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LO 4.3
Circadian Rhythm: The Influence
of Circadian Rhythms
• Suprachiasmatic Nucleus
– structure in the hypothalamus
– body's biological clock
– controls timing of circadian rhythms
– signals pineal gland to secrete or
suppress melatonin
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LO 4.3
Circadian Rhythm: The Influence
of Circadian Rhythms
LO 4.3
• The ebb and flow of circadian rhythms
is not strictly biological.
– Photoreceptors in retinas respond to the
amount of light reaching the eye,
affecting rhythms.
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
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Circadian Rhythm: The Influence
of Circadian Rhythms
• Two Important Circadian Rhythms
– body temperature
 sleep best when body temperature is
lowest
 most alert when body temperature is at
daily high point
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
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LO 4.3
Circadian Rhythm: The Influence
of Circadian Rhythms
LO 4.3
• Two Important Circadian Rhythms
– alertness
 follows a circadian rhythm separate from
sleep/wakefulness cycle
 less alert between 2:00 and 5:00 p.m.,
2:00 and 7:00 a.m.
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
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LO 4.4
Circadian Rhythms:
Disruptions in Circadian Rhythms
• Jet lag and working during subjective
night disrupt circadian rhythms.
– can lead to sleep difficulty, reduced
alertness, memory deficits
– Melatonin supplements are helpful in
alleviating jet lag.
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
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LO 4.4
Circadian Rhythms:
Disruptions in Circadian Rhythms
• Subjective Night
– time during a 24-hour period when the
biological clock tells a person to go to
sleep
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Sleep:
Why We Sleep
LO 4.5
• Two complementary theories have been
advanced to explain the need to sleep.
– restorative theory of sleep
 The function of sleep is to restore body
and mind.
 Restoration of energy and the
consolidation of memory do occur during
sleep.
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
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Sleep:
Why We Sleep
LO 4.5
• Two complementary theories have been
advanced to explain the need to sleep.
– circadian theory of sleep
 Sleep evolved to keep humans out of
harm's way during the night.
 also known as evolutionary or adaptive
theory
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LO 4.6
How We Sleep:
Non-Rapid Eye Movement Sleep (NREM)
• Stage 1: transition from waking to
sleeping; irregular waves with
occasional alpha waves
• Stage 2: transition from light to deeper
sleep; sleep spindles (waves with
alternating periods of calm and flashes
of intense activity) appear
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LO 4.6
How We Sleep:
Non-Rapid Eye Movement Sleep (NREM)
• Stage 3: deeper sleep; slow-wave sleep
begins when EEG shows that 20
percent of brain waves are delta waves
• Stage 4: deepest sleep; Stage 4 sleep
begins when 50 percent of waves are
delta waves
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Figure 4.1 Brain-Wave Patterns Associated with Different Stages of Sleep
By monitoring brain-wave activity on an EEG throughout a night’s sleep, researchers have identified the brainwave patterns associated with different stages of sleep. As sleepers progress through the four NREM stages, the
brain-wave pattern changes from faster, smaller waves in Stages 1 and 2 to the slower, larger delta waves in
Stages 3 and 4.
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
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LO 4.6
How We Sleep:
Rapid Eye Movement Sleep (REM)
• During REM, the brain is highly active.
• Epinephrine is released into the
system.
– Blood pressure rises.
– Heart rate and respiration become
faster and less regular.
• Most vivid dreams occur during REM.
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
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LO 4.6
How We Sleep:
Rapid Eye Movement Sleep (REM)
• REM sleep may be critical to the
consolidation of memories.
• REM Rebound
– increase in REM sleep after REM
deprivation
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LO 4.7
Variations in Sleep
• Infants and Young Children
– sleep the longest
– have largest percentage of REM and
slow-wave sleep
• Children from 6 to Puberty
– sleep best
– most consistent sleepers and wakers
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LO 4.7
Variations in Sleep
• Adolescents
– sleep patterns influenced by schedules
– Insufficient sleep may contribute to poor
school performance.
• Older Adults
– more difficulty falling asleep; sleep
more lightly
– spend more time in bed, but less time
asleep
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Figure 4.2 Average Hours of Daily Sleep across the Life Span.
The number of hours devoted to sleep in each 24-hour period decreases dramatically across the life span.
Sources: Foley, Ancoli-Israel, Britz, & Walsh, 2004; Iglowstein, Jenni, Molinari, & Largo, 2003; Hansen, Janssen,
Schiff, & Zee, 2005; Millman, 2005; Mindell, 1999; Ohayan, Carskadon, Guilleminault, & Vitiello, 2004.
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LO 4.8
Sleep Deprivation
• Effects of Sleep Deprivation
– difficulty concentrating
– impaired learning
– negative mood
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LO 4.8
Sleep Deprivation
• Effects on the Brain
– decreased activity in temporal lobes
during verbal learning tasks
– increased activity in prefrontal cortex
and parietal lobes
 compensates for decreased temporal lobe
activity
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LO 4.9
Parasomnias and Dyssomnias
• Parasomnia
 behaviors and physiological states that
normally occur only in the waking state
take place during sleep
• Dyssomnia
– sleep disorder in which the timing,
quantity, or quality of sleep is impaired
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Sleep Disorders
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LO 4.10
The Content of Our Dreams
• REM Dreams
– have a story-like quality
– more visual, vivid, and emotional than
NREM dreams
• NREM Dreams
– occur during NREM sleep
– less frequent and memorable than REM
dreams
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LO 4.10
The Content of Our Dreams
• Lucid Dreaming
– set of techniques that enable dreamers
to control the content of dreams
– Lucid dreams about exercise actually
seem to improve heart function.
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LO 4.11
Interpreting Dreams
• Freud believed that dreams satisfy
unconscious sexual and aggressive
desires.
– These desires are unacceptable to the
dreamer and must be disguised in
symbolic forms.
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LO 4.11
Interpreting Dreams
• Freud believed that dreams satisfy
unconscious sexual and aggressive
desires.
– manifest content
 content of a dream as recalled by the
dreamer
– latent content
 the underlying meaning of a dream
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LO 4.11
Interpreting Dreams
• Activation-Synthesis Theory
– Dreams are the brain's attempt to make
sense of the random firing of brain cells
during REM sleep.
• Evolutionary Theory
– Vivid REM dreams enable people to
rehearse skills needed to deal with
threatening events.
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LO 4.12
Meditation
• Techniques used to:
– Block out distractions and achieve an
altered state of consciousness
– Focus attention on an object, word,
one's breathing, or body movements
• Can be helpful for physical and
psychological problems
– controlling emotions
– lowering blood pressure
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LO 4.12
Meditation
• Neuroimaging studies suggest that
some areas of brain may be
permanently changed by long-term
meditation practice.
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
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LO 4.13
Hypnosis
• Procedure through which a hypnotist
uses suggestion to change thoughts,
feelings, sensations, perceptions, or
behavior in the subject
• Some people cannot be hypnotized.
• Viable technique used in medicine,
dentistry, psychiatry
• Used in surgical pain management
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Table 4.1
What Do You Know about Hypnosis?
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Theories of Hypnosis
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LO 4.14
Psychoactive Drugs
• Any substance that alters mood,
perception, or thought
– controlled substances
 approved for medical use
– illicit substances
 illegal
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LO 4.14
Psychoactive Drugs
• Many over-the-counter drugs are
psychoactive.
– antihistamines, decongestants
• Certain foods (such as chocolate) may
alter mood.
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LO 4.14
How Drugs Affect the Brain
• Psychoactive drugs create a sense of
pleasure by increasing availability of
dopamine in the nucleus accumbens, a
part of the brain's limbic system.
• How drugs affect neurotransmission:
– Opiates mimic the effects of endorphins.
– Depressants act on GABA receptors.
– Stimulants mimic the effects of
epinephrine.
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LO 4.15
Substance Abuse and Addiction
• Substance Abuse
– continued use of a substance that
negatively affects an individual's work,
education, and social relationships
• Physical Drug Dependence
– User develops:
 drug tolerance
– becomes less affected by drug, needs
more for same effect
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LO 4.15
Substance Abuse and Addiction
• Physical Drug Dependence
– User develops:
 withdrawal symptoms
– physical and psychological symptoms that
arise when use is discontinued
• Psychological Drug Dependence
– a craving or irresistible urge for the
drug's pleasurable effects
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LO 4.16
Stimulants
• Speed up activity in the central nervous
system
– suppress appetite
– User feels more awake, alert, and
energetic.
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LO 4.16
Stimulants
• Stimulants include:
– Caffeine
– Nicotine
– Amphetamine
– Cocaine
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LO 4.17
Depressants
• Decrease activity in the central nervous
system
– slow down bodily functions
– reduce sensitivity to outside stimulation
• Categories:
– Sedative-hypnotics
 alcohol
 barbiturates
 minor tranquilizers (benzodiazepines)
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LO 4.17
Depressants
• Categories:
– Narcotics (opiates)
 morphine, heroin
 OxyContin, Vicodin
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LO 4.18
Hallucinogens
• Alter and distort perceptions of time
and space
• Cause hallucinations
– have no basis in external reality
• Magnify the mood of the user at the
time the drug was taken
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LO 4.18
Hallucinogens
• Hallucinogens include:
– Marijuana
 impairs attention and coordination and
slows reaction time
 smaller brain volume and a lower
percentage of gray matter in the brain's
cortex in users starting before age 17
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LO 4.18
Hallucinogens
• Hallucinogens include:
– Marijuana
 appears to permanently stunt the
development of neurons in the
hippocampal regions of the brains of
young users
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LO 4.18
Hallucinogens
• LSD (Lysergic Acid Diethylamide)
– Average "trip" lasts 10 to 12 hours
– Usually produces extreme perceptual
and emotional changes
 visual hallucinations and feelings of panic
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LO 4.18
Hallucinogens
• LSD (Lysergic Acid Diethylamide)
– Some users develop hallucinogen
persisting perception disorder (HPPD)
 visual cortex highly stimulated whenever
individual shuts eyes
 chronic visual hallucinations when trying
to sleep
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LO 4.18
Hallucinogens
• Designer Drugs
– Attempt to mimic effects of other drugs
without negative effects
– All are derived from amphetamine.
– STP (Serenity, Tranquility, Peace) and
Ecstasy (MDMA)
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The Effects and Withdrawal Symptoms of Some
Psychoactive Drugs
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The Effects and Withdrawal Symptoms of Some
Psychoactive Drugs (continued)
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