Update in Transplantation
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Transcript Update in Transplantation
Transplantation
Jeffrey J. Kaufhold, MD FACP
Nephrology Associates
December 2003
Transplantation
Summary
Trends in Survival after transplant
Donor and Recipient preparation
HLA Matching
Surgical Procedure
Rejection diagnosis and treatment
Immunosuppression
Infectious complications after Transplant
Other complications after Transplant
Kidney Pancreas Update
Immunology and Tolerance
Scope of problem
300,000 dialysis patients in US
55,000 patients on waiting List
17,000 recovered kidneys per year
11000
from “deceased donors”
6000 from living related donors
1000 kidneys not used after recovery
Average waiting time 5 years !
History of Transplants
1950’s First attempted in Twins
Still
rejected due to minor antigen differences
1960’s First success
Imuran
and Prednisone, ATG
1983 Cyclosporine A introduced
Dramatic
improvement in graft survival
Opened the era for success in Heart, lung,
liver and other arenas.
Survival after Transplant
2003
Patient Survival 1 yr
98%
95
Allograft Survival 1 yr
LRD
DD
LRD
DD
95%
89
5 yrs
LRD
21 years
91 %
81
5 years
LRD
DD
DD 13.8 years
Allograft half-life
LRD
DD
76%
61
Transplant survival
Relative risk of death
Transplanted
in 1993 = 1.0
Transplanted in
1998 = 0.74
Currently on Wait list
= 1.7
These
Patients
are the healthy ones!
not on wait list = 2.6
Trends in Transplantation
Overall Mortality is unchanged!
Death
with functioning graft increasing
Donor Age older
Recipient age is older
Time on waiting list is longer
Older, sicker patients are getting
transplants
Transplant Update
Annual Death Rates
Pts
on list
Diabetic pts on list
Pts not on list
6.3 %
10.8 %
21 %
Note that “death censored graft loss” is
standard measure used in transplant
outcome reports since this is desired
outcome.
Donor Criteria
Living related preferred
Living unrelated next
Deceased Donor means longer wait
Brain
death required
No Infection
No malignancy (except CNS lymphoma)
Preferrably under 60 years old
Normal renal function
Recipient Preparation
Dialysis or near Dialysis
GFR
< 15 ml/min
Compliant with meds and treatment
Screen for infection, malignancy
Blood
Screen
tests and colonoscopy
for Heart Disease
Higher
risk for dialysis pts
25 y.o. on dialysis has same risk as 55 y.o.
Risk for dialysis pt 10 fold higher at any age.
Surgical Transplantation
Procedure time 2 - 4 hours
Hernia incision to expose Iliac A and V,
extend to expose bladder
Retroperitoneal so recovery time from
surgery is minimal
Anastomose Artery and Vein
Tunnel ureter into bladder
Lich,
Ledbetter
Surgical Transplantation
The native kidneys are left intact
Unless
problems with infection, HTN
Allograft is easy to palpate, biopsy
Ureter length is kept short
Where
does the ureter get its blood supply?
Surgical Transplantation
The native kidneys are left intact
Unless
problems with infection, HTN
Allograft is easy to palpate, biopsy
Ureter length is kept short
Dual
Blood supply from renal artery and from
cystic artery. Ischemic ureter leads to
stricture or leak.
Warm ischemia time is kept to < 45 min
Cold ischemia time up to 72 hours!
Surgical Transplantation
Typical Scenario:
Multiple
organ donor identified, blood typed
Organ recovery team takes abdominal organs
first, heart and lungs last. (bone skin corneas
may be taken after heart stops).
Organs are perfused and stored in
preservative solution
Mixture
of high K, antioxidants
Kept cold on ice.
Lymph
Nodes, spleen used for HLA typing
Surgical Transplantation
Cold Storage limits for organs:
Heart
Lung
Pancreas
Liver
Kidney
Primary
Tissue
Bone,
6 hours
6 hours
12 hours
24 hours
72 hours +
graft failure rate higher after 72 hrs.
weeks to months!
skin, cornea, dura mater, etc.
Surgical Transplantation
UNOS master list used to determine where
organs sent, which pts are best match
Primary patient, plus a standby are called
Crossmatch takes 6 hours
Standby used if CM + or primary not available
A single Txp team could then do
SPK first (4-6 hours)
Liver next (8-12 hours)
Kidney last (2-4 hours)
Risk of Graft Loss
Higher risk
Deceased donor
Recipient over 60
Donor over 60
Recipient race
Lower Risk
Living donor
Recipient under 60
Donor under 60
Recipient race
Black / Hispanic
Long Cold Ischemic
time
Previous Txp
High PRA
Asian
Short cold ischemia
Higher HLA match
Low PRA
Expanded Donor Kidneys
Used when risk of Txp is better than life
expectancy on dialysis
Criteria
Recipient/donor
over 60
Diabetics over 40
Failing access for dialysis
Patient with poor Quality of Life
Transplant Update
HLA Matching
Main
HLA groups A B C D
C not important for transplant survival
Host of minor antigens
Most important antigens are B and D
A
and B are constitutive (always expressed)
D antigen is inducible and responsible for
more serious (vascular) rejections when it
gets expressed.
Waiting list management
Point system for UNOS Wait list
1
7
5
2
4
4
pt per year on list
pts for 0 mismatch with B, DR antigens
pts for 1 mm with B, DR
pts for 2 mm with B, DR
pts for match in pt with PRA > 80 %
pts for Age < 11, 3 pts for age 11-18
National sharing of 0 mismatch kidneys
17-20
% of all transplants
Transplant Costs
Cost:
Kidney
Txp:
Islet cells
Panc Txp alone
SPK (K-P)
$ 60,000
53,000
105,000
130,000
Each year on dialysis: $27,000
LOS for uncomplicated Kidney:
5-7
days
Typical Kidney Course
Creat
8
7
6
5
Typical
4
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Days after Transplant
8
9
10
Delayed Graft Function Course
Biologic agent used first 10-14 days
Creat
8
7
6
5
4
Delayed
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Days after Transplant
8
9
10
Rejection
Clinical Diagnosis:
Hypertension
Increased
Creatinine
Decreased urine output
Biopsy findings:
Tubulitis
– usual
Vasculitis - bad
Interstitial infiltration
Fixing of C 4 d
Rejection Biopsy findings
Normal
Cellular Rejection
Rejection
Differential Diagnosis
Not all ARF is rejection!
Drug
toxicity
Ureter complication
Renal Artery Stenosis
Contrast, Aminoglycoside toxicity
Tubulo-interstitial Nephritis
Pre or Post renal causes
Recurrent disease (late)
Relative
frequency
Pattern of Acute Renal Failure
after Transplant
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
rejection
Drug tox
surgical
ATN
Recurrent
1st
Month
2nd to
6th
6 to 12 after 12
Month after transplant
Rejection
4 Types:
Hyperacute
(preformed antibody)
Screened
for with Lymphocyte crossmatch
Immediate/on the OR table
Rare due to testing
ADCC
Antibody
dependent cellular cytotoxicity
1-4 days post op
Rare occurance.
Rejection
4 Types:
Acute
Most
common
Due to Antigen presentation to an awakened
immune system
Cellular or Vascular
Delayed
Must
Type or Chronic Rejection
be differentiated from drug nephrotoxicity
Rejection and Complement
Circulating Proteins in blood:
#1
#2
#3
Albumin
Immunoglobulin
Complement, esp C 3.
Triggers of Complement fixation
Ischemia
reperfusion injury (IP - 10)
Brain injury in donor
Dialysis after transplant
Infection
Basic Immunology
Antigen presenting cells
Macrophages
Mesangial
cells
Dendritic/Kupfer cells
Reticuloendothelial system (RES)
Endothelial cells and others once injured
D
antigen expression
Basic Immunology
Cell mediated Immunity
Antigens:
Viruses, fungi, parasites, intracellular organisms
T cell lymphocytes
Cytotoxic
Directly attack and kill APC, Organism usually
Helper/ inducer cells
Recruit more immune cells to respond
IL-1 and IL-2
Suppressor cells
Feedback to modulate immune response
Important for tolerance.
Basic Immunology
Humoral / Neutrophil system
Parallel
to Cell mediated system
Antigens:
Usually
bacterial cell polysaccharide
Antibodies
Produced
by B lymphocytes
May be specific or nonspecific
IgG, IgM, others
Basic Immunology
Humoral / Neutrophil system
Immune
complex formation
Occurs when Antigen fixed by antibody
Specificity of ab for ag determines size and solubility
of Immune complex formed
Immune complex fixes complement
• Complement activation increases clearance of
I-C by spleen, etc
• C3b chemotactic factor for PMN’s
• PMN’s attack with lysozyme
•
Basic Immunology
Antigen Presenting Cell
Antigen plus HLA, coreceptors
Humoral
Cell Mediated
T lymphocytes
Fc receptor
comp
Cytotoxic
Helper
Suppressor
Memory
Pmn’s
B cell
C3b
Memory cell formation
Immunology of Rejection
HLA A and B are constitutive antigens
HLA D is inducible antigen
Infection,
ischemia induce D antigen
expression
D antigen expression leads to vascular
rejection which is worst type
How does Bactrim SS MWF help?
Immunology of Rejection
HLA A and B are constitutive antigens
HLA D is inducible antigen
Infection,
ischemia induce D antigen
expression
D antigen expression leads to vascular
rejection which is worst type
Bactrim SS MWF reduces bacteriuria
Immunology of Rejection
HLA A and B are constitutive antigens
HLA D is inducible antigen
Infection,
ischemia induce D antigen
expression
D antigen expression leads to vascular
rejection which is worst type
Bactrim SS MWF reduces bacteriuria
What is Acyclovir used for after Txp?
Immunology of Rejection
HLA A and B are constitutive antigens
HLA D is inducible antigen
Infection,
ischemia induce D antigen
expression
D antigen expression leads to vascular
rejection which is worst type
Bactrim SS MWF reduces bacteriuria
Acyclovir reduces shedding of Herpes Simplex
virus in urine
Induction Immunosuppression
Biological Agents
Steroid use vs steroid sparing
Cellcept used in place of Imuran
Calcineurin Inhibitors / Sirolimus
Induction Immunosuppression
Biological Agents
OKT-3
rarely used
Thymoglobulin (rabbit)
ATG (polyclonal)
Basiliximab (Simulect) Chimeric
Anti CD 25/ anti IL-2 receptor monoclonal
Daclizumab
(Zenapax) Humanized
Anti CD 25 Monoclonal
Induction Immunosuppression
Biological Agents
Expensive, complex to use
Use in high risk patients:
High
PRA
Second transplant
African American recipient
Delayed Graft function
Induction Immunosuppression
Biological Agents
Basiliximab and Daclizumab
Anti CD 25 monoclonals
Do not deplete lymphocytes
Will not stop ongoing rejection
Other immunosuppression (CNI, steroid, MMF) should
continue during use
OKT-3, ATG
Deplete lymphocytes, stop rejection,
reduce or withhold other immunosuppression while in use
Induction Immunosuppression
New Biological Agents coming soon:
CTL4
Ig
stimulates
to
LEA
a
CTL4 coreceptor on T cell which leads
Decreased activation
Apoptosis of the activated cell line
29 Y
second generation CTL4 Ig
Regulation of T-Cell Activation
IL-2
APC
CD 40
CD 80/86
CD 25
CTL4
Negative stimulatory
T-Cell
Positive stimulation
IL -2 Receptor
Induction Immunosuppression
Biological Agents recommendations
Low
risk patient:
IL-2
receptor antibody, consider steroid sparing
regimen
High
Risk patient
Thymoglobulin
plus 3 drug regimen
CNI, Steroids, MMF
Maintenance Immunosuppression
Categories of Agents:
Steroids
Calcineurin
Inhibitors
Intracellular
Cyclosporine, Tacrolimus, Prograf
Adjuvant
Agents
Interfere
signal modifiers
with cell cycling
Sirolimus, Rapamicin
Cellcept (MMF)
Imuran (azothioprine)
Where the drugs work
Steroids:
Toxic
to lymphocytes
Stops rejection
Inhibits release of IL-1 and IL-2
Inhibits chemotaxis
Where the drugs work
Cyclosporin A, Tacrilimus
Neoral,
Prograf
Calcineurin Inhibitors (CNI)
Multiple effects on proliferating immune cells
Inhibits m-RNA producing IL-2
Negligible effect on pre-sensitized cells
Does not stop ongoing rejection
Where the drugs work
Imuran, Cellcept
Antimetabolite
– blocks purine synthesis
Interupt cell cycling/proliferation
S Phase
G2
G1
Mitosis
Where the drugs work
Rapamicin
Sirolimus
Calcineurin
inhibitor with novel effects
Receptor is called TOR
Similar side effects to CYA and TAC
May be used in conjunction with TAC and CYA.
Maintenance Immunosuppression
Three Drug Regimen:
Steroid
- prednisone
Calcineurin Inhibitor
Cyclosporine,
Tacrolimus (Prograf)
Adjuvant
Agent
Cellcept
(MMF)
Steroid Sparing Regimen:
Prograf
+ MMF or Rapamicin
Drug Dosages
Steroid
10
mg daily or every other day
CyA
4-6
mg/Kg/day usually 100 - 150 BID
Levels 1-6 months: 250 - 400
Level after 6 months: 100 – 250
Imuran
50
– 100 mg daily at bedtime
Drug Dosages
Prograf
0.1
– 0.2 mg/kg/day
Usually about 5 mg BID
Levels 5-15 by ELISA
Rapamicin
6
mg po load then 2 mg po daily
Cellcept (MMF)
1000
mg BID, taper if low WBC or anemia, GI
intolerance.
Drug Conversion for Cause
Refractory Rejection: CyA -> Tac
Cardiovasc Dz: CyA -> Tac
Rapa
-> MMF
Diabetes:
Tac
decrease steroid dose
-> CyA may be helpful
Hirsuitism: CyA -> Tac
Gout: Azo -> MMF
Gingival Hyperplasia: CyA -> Tac
Stop
dihydropyridines (procardia XL)
Immunology of Rejection
Tolerance is the best immunosuppression
Has
been known for years
First seen in pts treated with Steroids/Imuran
Patients present off all IS with stable renal
function, normal biopsy.
Cyclosporine seems to impair development of
tolerance
Has lead to research about T-Cell coreceptors
Tolerance Inducing Mechanisms
T- Cell deletion in Thymus
Peripheral T- Cell deletion
Thy – 1 cells lead to rejection
IL-2 dependent
FAS dependent
Veto Cells
So immune system activation is required but apoptosis is
favored over rejection
Peripheral Non-deletional mechanism
Anergy – loss of response to antigen
Thy 2 cells – regulatory/suppressor cell
Tolerance in Practice Today
For high PRA and Positive Crossmatch pts:
IVIG/plasmapheresis
before and after TXP
Leads to decrease % Anti-donor antibody
After Txp, Antidonor Ab returns but does not
lead to rejection
Anergy
Increase
in Bcl - 2
Tolerance
“Tolerogenic Immunosuppression”
Rapamicin,
Tacrilimus seem to be OK
Cyclosporine blocks tolerance pathway
Starzl
Lancet 2003
Sayegh Annals of Surgery 2003
Complications of Transplant
Surgical
Drug Side Effects
Infections
Malignancies
Cardiovascular
Bone Disease/hypercalcemia
Polycythemia
When to remove the allograft
Complications of Transplant
Surgical
Wound
infection, dehiscence
Ureter stricture or leak
Bladder rupture if atrophic
Renal artery Stenosis
Renal Vein thrombosis
DVT
UTI, Pneumonia
Complications of Transplant
Drug Side Effects
Hypertension
Diabetes
Hirsuitism
Tremor
Renal
Failure
TTP
Anemia/marrow
suppression
GI side effects N/V/D
Complications of Transplant
Infections
Pattern
First
of infectious complications:
30 days
Period from 1 – 6 months
After 6 months
Complications of Transplant
Infections
First
30 days
Surgical
complications
UTI, wound, IV sites
Pre-existing
C-Dif, CMV, Herpes simplex
Infection
infections in recipient
carried from donor
CMV, West Nile Virus
Complications of Transplant
Infections
Period
Here
from 1 – 6 months
There be Monsters
Could be anything
Need to be aggressive and thorough in approach
Complications of Transplant
Infections
After
6 months, again divides into 3 groups:
Low risk group
Low IS load, no serious rejection or infection
Will mirror general population for the most part.
High risk group
Serious or recurrent bouts of rejection
More prone to fungal, CMV infections
Chronic infection group
Need to consider withdrawal of Immunosuppression
Hepatitis B, C, Difficult CMV, Virus associated
Malignancy.
Complications after Transplant
Malignancy
Due
to reduced immune Surveillance, chronic
virus affects
Most common is ?
Complications after Transplant
Malignancy
Due
to reduced immune Surveillance, chronic
virus affects
Most common is ?
Skin
followed by
Colon
Lymphoma
(Burkitt’s)
Hepatoma (Hep B)
Complications of Transplant
Hypertension
Correlates
with Age
Diabetes
Race
Graft
Function
CNI use
Steroids
Graft Survival reduced if hypertension +
Complications of Transplant
Hypertension
Target
SBP < 130
Chronic Allograft Nephropathy
Proteinuria
Target
BP 125 / 75
Recommended
B
Drugs:
blockers
ACE inhibitors
CCB’s and diuretics as needed.
Complications of Transplant
New Onset Diabetes after Txp
NODAT
Decrease
steroids if possible
Consider Change from TAC to CyA.
Cardiovascular Risk of a 25 y.o. recipient
Equal
to the risk for a 55 y.o. without renal
disease.
10 fold higher at any age!
Complications of Transplant
Hyperlipidemia
Assume
CV risk is present
LDL target < 100
Consider decreasing Steroids
Recommend changing CyA or Rapa to TAC.
Thrombin Activatable Fibrinolysis Inhibitor
TAFI
levels are increased in Txp and Diabetes
Increase risk of DVT, Unstable Angina.
Complications of Transplant
Post Transplant Bone Disease
Osteoporosis
in 40- 60 % of pts
BMD decreases 6-10 % per year
Fractures occurrence Rate
Diabetics:
Non
diabetics:
Contributing
Renal
40-50 %
10-15 %
Factors:
osteodystrophy, Immunosuppressives
PTH, Age, Gender, Gonadal Status
Complications of Transplant
Post Transplant Bone Disease
Treatment
Calcium
1200 mg Daily
Vit D 400 – 800 mcg daily
Exercise, Tai Chi
Quit smoking!
Fosamax 70 mg week or 5 mg daily for 6-12
months.
Hypercalcemia also common
Complications of Transplant
Polycythemia
Due
to extra erythropoietin production
High Hct, hypertensive
Treatment
Phlebotomy
ACE
inhibitor use
When to remove Allograft
Allograft Nephrectomy is indicated:
Unusual
– some pts have more than one
allograft!
For refractory infection
Most commonly for terminal rejection, after
graft has failed and pt is back on dialysis
FUO,
FTT, may thrombose or rupture.
Transplantation
Summary
Trends in Survival after transplant
Donor and Recipient preparation
HLA Matching
Surgical Procedure
Rejection diagnosis and treatment
Immunosuppression
Infectious complications after Transplant
Other complications after Transplant
Kidney Pancreas Update
Immunology and Tolerance
Kidney – Pancreas Transplant
Kidney – Pancreas Transplant
Rejection Diagnosis:
Hyperglycemia
May
also occur in face of high steroids, sepsis
Increased
serum amylase level
Decreased urine amylase level in bladder
anastomosis patients.
Maintenance immunosuppression
Tacrolimus/Cellcept
preferred combo
Avoid steroids if possible
Kidney – Pancreas Transplant
Rejection rates improved
Options for pancreas placement:
Attach
to bladder
Dumps
lots of bicarb, Cystitis
Easy to identify rejection by measuring urine
amylase
Attach
to intestine (enteric anastomosis)
Eliminates
problems with acidosis and cystitis
Rejection harder to identify early.
Kidney – Pancreas Transplant
Surgical Complication rate 10% at 1 yr.
Immunologic Failure Rates:
Type
PAK
PTA
SPK
of Txp
% graft loss at 1 yr.
7%
8
2
Gruessner, Clinical Transplantation 2002, p 52
Kidney – Pancreas Transplant
Effect of Pancreas Txp on outcomes
No
significant QOL improvement compared to
kidney alone
Insulin free for diabetics 50 – 90 %
Neuropathy improves
Microvasculature improves
Retinopathy – no improvement
Survival improved compared to wait list pts
May
be slightly better than kidney alone.
Ethnic Disparities in Transplant
Rate of transplantation lower than any
other ethnic group
% of AA patients hearing about the option
of transplant is only about 70% of other
groups
Rate of referral once they hear about
transplant is only about 70% of other
groups.
Ethnic Disparities in Transplant
Socioeconomic Factors:
70%
of AA children born into single parent homes
Less likely to have insurance
Barriers to travelling to appts
Less likely to be available when called
No phone or won’t answer due to debtors
Higher
PRA, fewer AA donors
Mistrust of system
Ethnic Disparities in Transplant
Insurance Impact on Transplant:
Compared
to pts of other ethnic groups with
same insurance, 70-80 % of eligible AA pts
get to transplant
HMO rates 70-80 % of eligible pts get to
transplant, evenly across races
Example
Military
of Rationing by Inconvenience
patients demonstrate NO disparity in
rates of transplant or Graft survival.
Ethnic Disparities in Transplant
Immunologic Factors
Once
AA
transplanted, AA pts fare worse
with 0 MM does about as well as Caucasian
with 6 MM and 1 rejection episode in first year.
Require higher doses of Immunosuppression
Don’t tolerate steroid or other drug withdrawal
nearly as well as other groups
Higher levels of IL-6, CD-80, TGF-B, Endothelin,
Renin.
More Hypertensive, which worsens overall survival
Immunology of Rejection
The Future
Protein Tyrosine Kinases
Src
FAK
Paxillin
Akt
PPARS peroxisome proliferator activated
receptors
Ligands for PPARs tend to decrease inflammatory
response
Include Piaglitizone, Lopid
Immunology of Rejection
The Future
Chemokine receptors:
CXC
R3 antibody prolongs graft survival in
monkey models
Also in clinical trials: CCR-1, CCR-5 which
bind CK’s and prevent activation of receptor.
Soluble Complement Receptor CR-1
Trypriline decreases synthesis of
complement
WY14643 ligand for PPAR
Immunology of Rejection
Chemoattractant Cytokines (chemokines)
Leukocyte
recruitment
Most important CK is CXC
Receptor is CXC-R3
Transmembrane
protein
Activation of CXC R3 activates rejection pathway
IP-10 Activates CXC R3
Both CXC R3 and IP-10 are present in urine of pts
who are rejecting