Transcript Table 4-1

Chapter4 Resources and Trade:The HeckscherOhlin Model
资源和贸易：H-O模型
 Introduction导论
 A Model of a Two-Factor Economy两要素经济模
型
 Effects of International Trade Between TwoFactor Economies国际贸易对两要素经济的影响
 Empirical Evidence on the Heckscher-Ohlin
Model实证检验
 Summary总结
 Appendix: Factor Prices, Goods Prices, and
Input Choices附录：要素价格、商品价格和投入
选择
1
Introduction
 In the real world, while trade is partly explained by
differences in labor productivity, it also reflects
differences in countries’ resources.在真实的世界中，劳
动力生产率差异部分解释了贸易的发生，同时，国家资源
的不同也能反映了部分原因。
 The Heckscher-Ohlin theory:
 Emphasizes resource differences as the only source of trade强
调资源不同作为贸易的惟一来源
 Shows that comparative advantage is influenced by:比较优势受
两个方面的影响
 Relative factor abundance (refers to countries)生产要素相对充裕程
度 （自然资源）
 Relative factor intensity (refers to goods)生产中不同要素的相对密
集使用程度（技术水平）
 Is also referred to as the factor-proportions theory要素比例理
论（H-O理论或资源禀赋理论）
2
4-1 A Model of a Two-Factor Economy
两要素经济模型
 Assumptions of the Model假设
• An economy can produce two goods, cloth and
•
•
•
food.两种产品：棉布和粮食
The production of these goods requires two inputs
that are in limited supply; labor (L) and land (T).生
产需要两种投入要素（受供给的制约）：劳动力和
土地。
Production of food is land-intensive and production
of cloth is labor-intensive in both countries.土地密
集型和劳动密集型两种产品
Perfect competition prevails in all markets.完全竞
争
3
Figure 4-1: Input Possibilities in Food Production
单位产出的投入组合
Unit land input aTF ,
in acres per calorie
Input combinations
that produce one
calorie of food生产一单位粮食的要素投入组合
//
Unit labor input aLF ,
in hours per calorie
4
Factor Intensity要素密集度
In a world of two goods (cloth and food) and two
factors (labor and land), food production is landintensive, if at any given wage-rental ratio the landlabor ratio used in the production of food is greater
than that used in the production of cloth:土地密集型
（粮食）
TF/LF > TC/ LC(给定工资与地租率)
• Example: If food production uses 80 workers
and 200 acres, while cloth production uses 20
workers and 20 acres, then food production is
land-intensive and cloth production is laborintensive.劳动密集型
5
Figure 4-2: Factor Prices and Input Choices
要素价格与投入选择
Wage-rental
ratio, w/r工资-地租比
CC
FF
Land-labor
ratio, T/L土地劳动比例
6
 Factor Prices and Goods Prices要素价格与商品
价格
Stolper-Samuelson Theorem (effect):（斯托尔珀-萨缪
尔森效应：反映要素价格与商品价格之间关系）
 If the relative price of a good increases, holding factor
supplies constant, then the nominal and real return (in
terms of both goods) to the factor used intensively in the
production of that good increases, while the nominal and
real return (in terms of both goods) to the other factor
decreases.在要素供给约束的条件下，一种商品的相对价格
上升，对于生产密集使用的要素而言，用两种商品衡量的
名义收益和真实收益均增加；但对于其他要素收益则下降
。
• The reverse is also true.
7
Figure 4-3: Factor Prices and Goods Prices要素价格与商品价格
Relative price of
cloth, PC/PF棉布的相对价格
SS
Wage-rental
ratio, w/r工资—地租比率
8
Figure 4-4: From Goods Prices to Input Choices(P70)
从商品价格到要素投入选择
工资土租比w/r
CC
FF
(w/r)2
(w/r)1
SS
Relative
(PC/PF)2 (PC/PF)1
price of
cloth, PC/PF
Increasing
(TC/LC)1 (TC/LC)2(TF/LF)1 (TF/LF)2
Increasing
Landlabor
Ratio, T/L
9
 An increase in the price of cloth relative to that of food,
PC/PF ,will:棉布的相对价格上升将
 Raise the income of workers relative to that of landowners, w/r.
提高工人相对于土地所有者的收入
 Raise the ratio of land to labor, T/L, in both cloth and food
production and thus raise the marginal product of labor in terms
of both goods. 提高两种产品生产中的土地与劳动的比例，提高了
用两种商品衡量的劳动边际生产产出。(劳动稀缺程度提高使土地
使用比例提高)
 Raise the purchasing power of workers and lower the purchasing
power of landowners, by raising real wages and lowering real
rents in terms of both goods.提高了用两种商品衡量的工人的真实
工资和购买力，降低了土地所有者地租收入和购买力。
10
Resources and Output资源与产出
How is the allocation of resources determined?
如何决定资源分配点的位置？
Given the relative price of cloth and the
supplies of land and labor, it is possible to
determine how much of each resource the
economy devotes to the production of each
good.假定相对价格和土地与劳动供给不变
，如何决定不同要素投入到不同的商品生产
。
11
Figure 4-5: The Allocation of Resources(P69)
资源的配置
LF
1
TC
F
OC
生产棉布所使用的劳动
Increasing
OF
C
TF
生产粮食所使用的土地
生产棉布所使用的土地
Increasing
生产粮食所使用的劳动
LC
12
 How do the outputs of the two goods change
when the economy’s resources change?当资源
变化时，两种商品的产出如何变化？
Rybczynski Theorem (effect):雷布津斯基 定理
 If a factor of production (T or L) increases, then the supply
of the good that uses this factor intensively increases and
the supply of the other good decreases for any given
commodity prices.当商品价格一定时，当 某要素增加后，
密集使用该要素的产品产量增加
13
Increasing
Labor used in food production
L2F
O2 F
L1F
O 1F
1
T1C
T2 C
2
F2
OC
C
F1
Labor used in cloth production L2C
Increasing
L1C
T 1F
T 2F
Land used in food production
Land used in cloth production
Figure 4-6: An Increase in the Supply of Land（P70）
土地供应增加
14
15
16
Figure 4-7: Resources and Production Possibilities（
P71）要素与生产可能性
Output of
food, QF
Slope = -PC/PF
2
Q2 F
Slope = -PC/PF
Q1
1
F
TT1
Q2 C Q 1 C
TT2
Output of
cloth, QC
17
 An increase in the supply of land (labor) leads to a
biased expansion of production possibilities toward
food (cloth) production.土地供应增加使一国的生产可能性
向偏于粮食生产的方向扩张，而劳动供给的增加使生产可
能性向偏于棉布生产的方向扩张。
 The biased effect of increases (decreases) in resources
on production possibilities is the key to understanding
how differences in resources give rise to international
trade.
 An economy will tend to be relatively effective at
producing goods that are intensive in the factors with
which the country is relatively well-endowed.一个国家生
产本国相对充裕资源密集型产品比较有效率。
18
A、发达工业国家的相对资源禀赋情况
1980年发达工业国家资源禀赋的占有率
国家
有形
资本
非熟练
工人
可耕土 所有资源
地
美国
33。6 50。7 27。7 14。1
0。19
29。3
28。3
日本
15。5 23
8。7
11。5
0。25
0。8
11。2
西德
7。7
10
6。9
5。5
0。08
1。1
7。2
英国
4。5
8。5
5。1
4。9
0。09
1。0
5。1
法国
7。5
6
6
3。9
0。06
2。6
5
加拿
大
3。9
1。8
2。9
2。1
0。03
6。1
2。6
其他
国家
27。3 0
99。32
59。1
39。3
总计
100％ 100％ 100％ 100％
100％
100％
100％
科技
人员
熟练
工人
半熟练
工人
42。7 53
19
B、一些国家的资本/劳动比率
1990年一些国家的人均资本存量
发达国家
1990
发展中国家
1990
加拿大
47961
韩国
20644
西德
47441
哥伦比亚
15648
法国
42760
阿根廷
13972
日本
87197
智利
11670
美国
41514
5574
意大利
37612
泰国
菲律宾
西班牙
28911
2345
英国
23816
印度
肯尼亚
4239
1056
20
4-2 Effects of International Trade Between Two-Factor
Economies国际贸易对两要素经济的影响
Assumptions of the Heckscher-Ohlin
model:
There are two countries (Home and Foreign)
that have:
Same tastes相同消费偏好
Same technology相同技术水平
Different resources资源不同
• Home has a higher ratio of labor to land than
Foreign does本国拥有的劳动对土地比例高于外国
Each country has the same production structure
of a two-factor economy.
21
 Relative Prices and the Pattern of Trade相对价
格与贸易模式
Factor Abundance要素禀赋
 Home country is labor-abundant compared to Foreign
country (and Foreign is land-abundant compared to
Home) if and only if the ratio of the total amount of labor to
the total amount of land available in Home is greater than
that in Foreign:本国是劳动充裕的国家，而外国是土地充裕
的国家，则
L/T > L*/ T*
• Example: if America has 80 million workers and 200
million acres, while Britain has 20 million workers and 20
million acres, then Britain is labor-abundant and America
is land-abundant.
 In this case, the scarce factorin Home is land and in
Foreign is labor.本国稀缺要素是土地而外国是劳动
22
When Home and Foreign trade with each other, their
relative prices converge. The relative price of cloth rises
in Home and declines in Foreign.贸易使两国棉布相对价
格收敛（本国升高，外国降低）。
 In Home, the rise in the relative price of cloth leads to a
rise in the production of cloth and a decline in relative
consumption, so Home becomes an exporter of cloth and
an importer of food. 在本国，棉布相对价格上升导致棉布
产量上升和相对消费下降，因此本国成为棉布出口国和粮
食进口国
 Conversely, the decline in the relative price of cloth in
Foreign leads it to become an importer of cloth and an
exporter of food.
 相反地，外国棉布相对价格下降导致棉布产量下降和相对
消费上升，则外国成为棉布进口国和粮食出口国
23
Figure 4-8: Trade Leads to a Convergence of Relative Prices
Relative price
of cloth, PC/PF
RS*
RS
3
2
1
RD
Relative quality
of cloth, QC + Q*C
Q F + Q *F
24
Heckscher-Ohlin Theorem:H-O理论
A country will export that commodity which uses
intensively its abundant factor and import that
commodity which uses intensively its scarce
factor.一国倾向于出口国内充裕资源密集的产品。
25
案例：发达工业国家的出/进口比率
产品
美国
日本
西德
法国
英国
加拿大
技术密
集型
服务
1.52
5.67
2.4
1.38
1.39
0.77
1.47
0.73
0.8
1.32
1.19
0.5
标准化
产品
劳动密
集型
初级产
品
0.39
1.09
0.84
1.03
0.76
1.38
0.38
1.04
0.59
0.86
0.71
0.2
0.55
0.04
0.29
0.52
0.81
2.21
26
 Trade and the Distribution of Income贸易与收入
分配
Trade produces a convergence of relative prices.贸易导
致相对价格收敛
Changes in relative prices have strong effects on the
relative earnings of labor and land in both countries:相对
价格变化对劳动与土地相对收入产生影响
 In Home, where the relative price of cloth rises:
• Laborers are made better off and landowners are made worse
off.本国劳动者受益而土地所有者受损
 In Foreign, where the relative price of cloth falls, the
opposite happens: 当外国棉布价格下降时，则相反。
• Laborers are made worse off and landowners are made better
off.劳动者受损，土地所有者受益
Owners of a country’s abundant factors gain from trade,
but owners of a country’s scarce factors lose.一国充裕要
素的所有者从贸易中获利，而稀缺要素所有者因贸易受损27
。
Difference between the specific factors
model and the Heckscher-Ohlin model in
terms of income distribution effects:
The specificity of factors to particular industries
is often only a temporary problem.
Example: Garment makers cannot become computer
manufactures overnight, but given time the U.S.
economy can shift its manufacturing employment
from declining sectors to expanding ones.
In contrast, effects of trade on the distribution of
income among land, labor, and capital are more
or less permanent.
28
Factor Price Equalization要素价格均等化
In the absence of trade: labor would earn less
in Home than in Foreign, and land would earn
more.不存在国际贸易的情况下，本国劳动者比
外国劳动者收入减少，土地将更多
Factor-Price Equalization Theorem:要素价格均
等化定理
International trade leads to complete equalization in
the relative and absolute returns to homogeneous
factors across countries.国际贸易导致要素价格完全
相等。
It implies that international trade is a substitute for the
international mobility of factors.这意味着国际贸易是
要素国际流动的替代。
29
Has international trade equalized the returns to
homogeneous factors in different countries in
the real world?真实世界的情况如何呢？
Even casual observation clearly indicates that it has
not.
• Example: Wages are much higher for doctors, engineers,
technicians, mechanics and laborers in the United States
and Germany than in Korea and Mexico.
Under these circumstances, it is more realistic to say
that international trade has reduced（简化的 ）rather
than completely eliminated, the international
difference in the returns to homogeneous factors.
30
Table 4-1: Comparative International Wage Rates (United States = 100)
（P79）
31
Three assumptions crucial to the prediction of factor
price equalization are in reality untrue:三个基本假定与现
实不符
 Both countries produce both goods两国生产两商品
 Both countries have the same technologies in production
相同的生产技术
 Both countries have the same prices of goods due to trade
贸易导致价格趋同。
 还可以举出不合理假设吗?
One thing the factor-price equalization theorem does not
say is that international trade will eliminate or reduce
international differences in per capita incomes.
32
Table 4-2: Composition of Developing-Country Exports
(Percent of Total)（P80，case）
33
发达工业国家制造业的每小时工资与美国的比率
国家
日本
意大利
法国
英国
西德
一般平均
美国
1959
11
23
27
29
29
24
100
1976
24
42
41
35
56
40
100
1985
51
62
62
53
84
62
100
1993
108
111
104
90
128
108
100
34
4-3 Empirical Evidence on the Heckscher-Ohlin Model
Testing the Heckscher-Ohlin Model模型检验
Tests on U.S. Data
Leontief paradox里昂惕夫悖论
• Leontief found that U.S. exports were less capital-intensive
than U.S. imports, even though the U.S. is the most capitalabundant country in the world.美国出口产品的资本-劳动比低
于进口产品。
Tests on Global Data全球数据的检验
A study by Bowen, Leamer, and Sveikauskas tested the
Heckscher-Ohlin model using data for a large number
of countries.
• This study confirms the Leontief paradox on a broader level.
35
Table 4-3: Factor Content of U.S. Exports and Imports for 1962
36
1947年主要的净出口和净进口行业以及资本/劳动比率（美元/工人
）
净出口
资本/劳动
净进口
资本/劳动
1、批发贸易
7638
农业和渔业
29689
2、机动车辆
10447
纸和纸箱厂
11123
3、谷物制品
20752
橡胶
17848
4、纺织产品：纺织、 10738
编织和印染
榨汁机
12108
5、铁路运输
21022
食品：罐头、保鲜及冷 15635
冻
6、海洋运输
15945
其他非铁矿（不包括铜 16205
、铅、锌和铝）
7、钢制品和轧钢机
15273
原油及天然气
29508
8、采煤
8491
狩猎器具
14259
9、特殊的工业机械
10439
原生铜
20080
10、石油产品
27139
其他原生金属（不包括 16344
铅、铜及铝）
37
b、克拉维斯(Kravis)，1956年
C、基辛（Keesing)，1966年
d、鲍得温(Baldwin)，1971年
e、布朗逊(Branson)和莫挪尤斯(Monoyios)，1977
年
f、利默尔(Leamer)，1980，1984年
g、斯特思(Stern)和马斯库斯(Maskus)，1981年
h、萨尔瓦托(Salvatore)和巴拉扎什(Barazesh)：
1990年
38
Tests on Global Data全球数据的检验
A study by Bowen, Leamer, and Sveikauskas tested
the Heckscher-Ohlin model using data for a large
number of countries.
• This study confirms the Leontief paradox on a broader
level.
39
Table 4-4: Testing the Heckscher-Ohlin Model(P84)
40
Tests on North-South Trade南北贸易检验
North-South trade in manufactures seems to fit the
Heckscher-Ohlin theory much better than the overall
pattern of international trade.
The Case of the Missing Trade丢失的贸易
A study by Trefler in 1995 showed that technological
differences across a sample of countries are very
large.
41
Table 4-5: Trade Between the United States and South Korea,
1992 (million dollars)(P84）
42
Table 4-6: Estimated Technological Efficiency,
1983 (United States = 1)
43
Implications of the Tests检验的内涵
Empirical evidence on the Heckscher-Ohlin
model has led to the following conclusions:
It has been less successful at explaining the actual
pattern of international trade.
It has been useful as a way to analyze the effects of
trade on income distribution.
44
Summary
 The Heckscher-Ohlin model, in which two goods
are produced using two factors of production,
emphasizes the role of resources in trade.
 A rise in the relative price of the labor-intensive
good will shift the distribution of income in favor
of labor:
The real wage of labor will rise in terms of both
goods, while the real income of landowners will fall in
terms of both goods.
45
Summary
 For any given commodity prices, an increase in
a factor of production increases the supply of the
good that uses this factor intensively and
reduces the supply of the other good.
 The Heckscher-Ohlin theorem predicts the following
pattern of trade:
A country will export that commodity which uses
intensively its abundant factor and import that
commodity which uses intensively its scarce factor.
46
Summary
 The owners of a country’s abundant factors
gain from trade, but the owners of scarce
factors lose.
 In reality, complete factor price equalization is
not observed because of wide differences in
resources, barriers to trade, and international
differences in technology.
 Empirical evidence is mixed on the
Heckscher-Ohlin model.
Most researchers do not believe that differences in
resources alone can explain the pattern of world
trade or world factor prices.
47
Appendix: Factor Prices, Goods Prices, and Input
Choices
Figure 4A-1: Choosing the Optimal Land-Labor Ratio
Units of land used
to produce one
calorie of food, aTF
Isocost lines
1
//
Units of labor used to
produce one calorie
of food, aLF
48
Appendix: Factor Prices, Goods Prices, and Input
Choices
Figure 4A-2: Changing the Wage-Rental Ratio
Units of land used
to produce one
calorie of food, aTF
2
Slope = - (w/r)2
1
//
Slope = - (w/r)1
Units of labor used to
produce one calorie
of food, aLF
49
Appendix: Factor Prices, Goods Prices, and Input
Choices
Figure 4A-3: Determining the Wage-Rental Ratio
Land input
FF
Slope = - (w/r)
CC
Labor input
50
Appendix: Factor Prices, Goods Prices, and Input
Choices
Figure 4A-4: A Rise in the Price of Cloth
Land input
FF
Slope = - (w/r)2
Slope = - (w/r)1
CC2
CC1
Labor input
51
Reading
邹薇(2002):论竞争力的源泉: 从外生比较
优势到内生比较优势,《武汉大学学报(社
会科学版)》，1月
52
Question
 课堂论文
 1、根据相关数据，描述中国劳动生产率变动与工资变动
的关系和特征，讨论中国出口导向战略与比较优势之间的
关系。
 2、比较发达国家和发展中国家劳动生产率与工资变动的
特征，中国的低工资是否导致了发达国家劳动密集产业工
人的失业，如何评估这一现象
 3、根据相关数据，分析是否出现要素价格均等化趋向，
理论和现实是否相符？原因有哪些？
 3、中国低劳动成本是中国出口增加的主要原因吗？请
从中国贸易结构变化分析。
53