Transcript Production, location and change

PRODUCTION, LOCATION
AND CHANGE
The Management of Agricultural Change
Syllabus Content

A single case study for one country illustrating:
 title:
the need for agricultural change
 scale: at the scale of both the individual farmer and the
country itself
 content:
 why
changes are needed,
 why changes are difficult,
 attempts made to bring about change by management
 critical evaluation of the success of these attempted solutions
The Need for Agricultural Change in
Sub-Saharan Africa
Sub-Saharan Africa:
-Mali
-Burkina Faso
-Niger
Background


The success of IR8 in India has not been repeated in
Africa – perhaps the continent that needs it the most.
This can be attributed to various factors including:
Widespread corruption,
 Insecurity,
 A lack of infrastructure, and
 A general lack of will on the part of African governments.


Environmental factors, such as the availability of water
for irrigation and the high diversity in slope and soil
types in any given area, are also reasons why success
has been so elusive.
Why are changes needed?
Countries

HDI Score
HDI Position
Mali
0.407
176
Burkina Faso
0.388
181
Niger
0.337
187
These countries are all critically short of food,
especially during the dry season, which in some
years can last for months.
Why are changes needed?

The main reasons for low yields are:



general low soil fertility (impoverished, sandy, rapidly leached soils)
the impact of continuous cultivation of the same crops (over-cropping)
leading to soil exhaustion
Other issues were climatic, cultural and economic:


In 2010 drought left 7.1 million people starving in Niger as crops
withered and livestock died.
When most farmers in Mali, Burkina Faso and Niger apply fertiliser, they
simply throw handfuls of it across a newly sown field;



With this traditional method most of the fertiliser is wasted with the granules
falling nowhere hear the newly sown seed.
Nutrients are rapidly leached out before plants can access them.
In Mali, fertilisers cost US$1.65 per kilo (about 4 times the world
average) so farmers use small amounts (about 5kg per ha.). Yields are
consequently low.
Why changes are difficult?

The FAO has identified a number of challenges which
farmers face in the area.
A considerable share of the rural population in SubSaharan Africa resides in smallholder farming areas that
are densely populated and face land shortages.
 Much of the under-utilised land is concentrated in relatively
few countries and between one half and two thirds of
surplus land is currently marginal land. Conversion of such
marginal land to agriculture would come at considerable
environmental cost.
 In land constrained countries, area driven growth may / has
come at the expense of fallows. Rising rural populations and
associated land pressures has resulted in continuous
cropping in many African countries, with fallows largely
disappearing in densely populated areas.

Why changes are difficult?

The FAO has identified a number of challenges which
farmers face in the area.
Continuous cultivation of existing plots would not necessarily
pose problems for sustainable intensification if sufficient use
of fertilisers, soil amendment practices and other landaugmenting investments are employed and coupled with
continued education to maintain and improve soil quality.
 However, a large body of literature in SSA points to soil
degradation arising from unsustainable cultivation practices
in regions with a high population density. Continuous
cultivation and lack of crop rotation deplete organic carbon
levels, making soil less responsive to fertiliser application.
This also makes it more difficult for smallholder farmers to
benefit from yield gains offered by plant genetic
improvement.

Attempts to bring about change Interventions

Microdosing
Impoverished soils and low yields are the bane of Africa’s
small farmers. Chemical fertilizers are a critical input. The
fertilizer microdosing technology using a bottle cap can
boost productivity, improve the tolerance of sorghum and
pearl millet to drought and temperature stress and make
plant nutrient use more efficient to raise yields.
 This method has been introduced in an attempt to reduce
wastage of fertiliser. It is a precision farming technique
developed where a small dose of fertiliser is strategically
placed with seeds at planting time.
 It also involves fertilisers are placed right beside the plant
where it is most needed and effective.

Attempts to bring about change Interventions

Microdosing
 The
system is supported by other interventions:
 Subsidized
fertilizer has been authorized for use on
millet and sorghum farms in Niger and Mali.
 Village-level input stores were created for distribution of
government-supplied fertilizer in Niger and Mali. These are
linked to agro-dealers and sell small packets of fertiliser to
farmers – ensuring easy access.
Using a bottle cap, they
apply tiny amounts of
fertiliser - about one-sixth of
the quantities normally put on
grain crops in Europe directly to the plant roots.
Research shows this increases
yields in Niger by an
average of 55%
Attempts to bring about change Interventions

Low-pressure drip irrigation
 This
is a very successful agricultural method used to
increase yields – and it reduces labour. Instead of hours
spent using a watering can, it only takes 10 minutes to
switch on a drip kit.
 Water is supplied directly to the roots instead of the
entire plant.
 Water is pumped from boreholes using solar power.
 It allows women to produce vegetables year-round in
arid areas like Niger and Burkina Faso.
Drip irrigation in Burkina Faso
Drip irrigation in Niger
Attempts to bring about change Interventions

Bio-reclamation of degraded lands
 Also
used to counteract poor yields during drought.
 Exhausted Sahelian soils are replenished using
rainwater storage methods and the replanting of
indigenous trees and crops.
 In the dryland tropics, such as Niger, indigenous plants
and crops are hardy natural survivors that are adapted
to tolerate drought conditions.
Bio-reclamation of degraded lands
Attempts to bring about change

Warrantage

Also called inventory credit system, this scheme allows farmers to
borrow against their harvest:



Farmers place part of their harvest in a local storehouse in return for
inventory credit to meet pressing postharvest expenses and engage in
dry-season, income-generating activities. The stored grain can be
sold later in the year at much higher prices for profit.
The system allows farmers to sell their harvests when the price
improves but in the meantime are able to invest in their farm by
diversifying, repairing or merely clearing existing debts.
Warrantage has been implemented in Mali, Burkina Faso,
Niger as well as Zimbabwe.
Policy Changes


In 2006, Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA) was established
to trigger an African Green Revolution.
The intention was:



AGRA’s aspirations are that by 2020:





to transform the existing system of small-scale farmers into a highly productive,
efficient, competitive and sustainable operation to ensure food security, and
lift millions of people out of poverty.
Food insecurity in at least 20 countries would be reduced by 50%
Some 20 million small holder farmers would have their income doubled, and
At least 15 countries would be on the path to achieving and sustaining a Green
Revolution.
In an attempt to remedy low fertility and high rates of leaching, AGRA set
up the Soil Health Programme in 2008.
ICRISAT
Highlights of the Microdosing Project
Burkina Faso
Mali
Microdosing
22 413 field demonstrations
440 farmer schools
57 338 farmers benefitted
45 000 farmers adopted technology
20 500 farmers trained in microdosing
393 field days with 57 338 farmers
Broadcasts reached 366 000 farmers
2819 demonstration plots
11 210 farmers trained in fertiliser microdosing
72 famers’ organisations holding farmer field schools
25 860 farmers trained in integrated soil fertility management
Yield increases of 33 – 47% compared to no fertiliser
206 farmer field days with 9642 farmers (35% women)
133 broadcasts on regional radio and 6 FM stations
Inventory Credit
58 warrantage warehouses set up
158 committee members trained
FCFA 135 million (US$ 280,000) lent to 3470
farmers (51% women)
1150 tonnes of grain stored in 43 stores
FCFA 72 million (US$ 144,000) lent to 1077 farmers
Input Supplies
36 fertiliser dealerships set up
584 tonnes of NPK and urea fertilisers used in
field demonstrations
3470 farmers (51% women) benefited
43 dealerships set up
76 897 farmers (30% women) bought 94 850 minipackets and
34 255 50-kg bags of fertiliser
Other Impacts of Policy Changes





39% of the total cropping area covered.
44-120% increase in sorghum and millet yields
30% increase in family incomes between 2009 and
2012
$ 7 million savings in food imports
Generated a net present value of $26 million and an
internal rate of return of 36% by 2013
Other Impacts of Policy Changes




Fertilizer use rates increased from 7.41kg/ha to
11.45 kg/ha in the baseline study
21- 68% rise in proportion of farmers using
mineral fertilizer
13km to 6km reduction in average distance to an
input shop
77% farmers used at least one type of mineral
fertilizer compared to 48% in a control village
An evaluation of the methods
Evaluation




The combined effects of rapid urbanisation, population growth and
resulting transformations in food demand have had major impacts on the
size of the West African food economy and its structure. Using recent
expenditure and consumption surveys compiled by the World Bank, the size
of the West African food economy is estimated at USD 178 billion in 2010.
This represents 36% of regional GDP, making it the largest sector of the
West African economy.
In many countries, the domestic food market is becoming more attractive for
farmers than traditional export cash crops. The non-agricultural postharvest
activities of the food economy, such as processing, logistics and retail, are
developing quickly. These account for 40% of the sector’s value added and
will continue to expand (Allen and Heinrigs, 2016).
The emergence of local food industries and processing facilities creates
increasing employment opportunities in processing, packaging, distribution
and retail in urban and rural areas. In many rural areas the non-farm rural
economy is growing rapidly and driving economic transformations –
alleviating poverty.
Evaluation




Undernourishment has been a long-standing challenge, with uneven
progress across the region. Despite being reduced from 33% in
1990-92 to 23% in 2014-16, the percentage of undernourishment
remains the highest among developing regions (FAO, IFAD and WFP,
2015).
Owing to rapid population growth of 2.7% p.a. over the same
period, the absolute number of undernourished people has
increased by 44 million to reach 218 million.
Slow progress towards food security has been attributed to low
productivity of agricultural resources, high population growth rates,
political instability and civil strife.
However, vast regional differences remain and the success achieved
in countries with stable political conditions, economic growth and
expanding agricultural sectors suggests that appropriate
governance systems, institutional capacities, and macroeconomic,
structural and sectoral policies can work together to improve food
security on a long-lasting and sustainable basis.
Evaluation


The strategic development of the agricultural sector
would benefit from increased policy focus on
infrastructure, research and development. Consistency
of policy applications will remain a key factor shaping
the success of the sector within the development
agenda.
As a form of producer support targeting improved
productivity, fertiliser subsidy programmes have been
employed in a number of countries and while successful
in accelerating yield growth in other SSA countries such
as Zambia and Malawi, the ultimate effectiveness of
such programmes in the long-run remains disputed, with
the costs often found to outweigh the benefits.
Evaluation



The long-term effects of all these interrelated
schemes appear to bring benefits but are not yet
fully understood.
Much more research is needed to examine the
impact on the soil in the long term.
Further work is needed to develop simple tools to
help and reduce the labour intensity of the
microdosing technique, especially with the possibility
of labour shortages brought on by increasing
urbanisation.