Transcript INDUSTRIALIZATION

Advanced Placement
Human Geography
Session 1
By Geri Flanary
To accompany AP Human Geography:
A Study Guide
3rd edition
By Ethel Wood
• What is it?
• Economic geography studies the impact of
economic activities on the landscape and
investigates reasons behind the locations of
economic activities.
• Geographers are interested in
• the changes that industrialization has brought to
the cultural and social landscapes
• the different patterns of wealth created by
industrialization
• the gap between rich and poor people of the world
that
became
more
pronounced
after
industrialization
Industrialization
Industrialization is the process by
which economic activities on earth’s
surface evolved from producing
basic, primary goods to using
factories for mass-producing goods
for consumption.
• Industrialization involves the
production of goods using
advanced sources of energy to
drive large machinery and
specialized labor to produce
standardized goods.
• The Industrial Revolution began in England in
the late 18th century.
• Economic development, the process of improving
the material conditions of people through the
diffusion of knowledge and technology, has
occurred as a result of industrialization.
• Economic development may be
traced by examining three
types of economic activities:
• the primary sector (agriculture)
• the secondary sector (industry)
• the tertiary sector (services)
• This is the part of the
economy that draws raw
materials from the natural
environment.
• It consists of
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agriculture
raising animals
fishing
forestry
mining
• This sector of the economy is
largest in low-income, preindustrial nations.
• Even though it originated
10,000 years ago, farming is
still the major occupation in
many countries of the world.
• The secondary sector is the part
of the economy that transforms
raw materials into manufactured
goods.
• This sector grows quickly as
societies
industrialize
and
includes the following operations:
• refining petroleum into gasoline
• turning metals into tools
automobiles
and
• As industrialization diffused to
other areas of the world,
economic activities dramatically
changed along with:
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lifestyles
values
beliefs
customs
• This sector was first
created during the late
18th century by the
Industrial Revolution.
• Human
and
animal
muscle was replaced
with energy generated
by machines.
• This sector is the part of the
economy that involves services
rather than goods.
• Tertiary activities grow with
industrialization and come to
dominate post-industrial societies,
or countries where most people
are no longer employed in
industry.
• Post-industrial production
is based on computers and
other electronic devices
that create, process, store,
and apply information.
• Occupational
structure
changes significantly with
post-industrialism.
• Examples of tertiary sector
jobs:
• construction
• trade
• finance
• real estate
• private services
• government
• transportation
• The quaternary sector is
often seen as a subset of the
tertiary sector.
• This sector includes service jobs
concerned with research and
development, management and
administration, and processing
and disseminating information.
More Developed Countries Less Developed Countries
(MDCs)
(LDCs)
• These countries have • These countries have not
experienced
experienced
industrialization.
industrialization.
• Most countries in the
world belong in this
category.
Percentage of Work Force
Structural Change in Economies
Primary
Division of Labor Varies by
Level of Economic Development
Tertiary
Quaternary
Secondary
Pre-Industrial
Industrial
(LDCs)
(NICs)
Post-Industrial
(MDCs)
• Some LDCs may be subcategorized as
newly-industrialized countries.
• These countries are found mostly in Asia and Latin
America.
• The process experienced by these countries
is sometimes called compressed modernity.
• This means that the country has experienced:
• rapid economic and political change
• a growing economy
• an expanding web of nongovernmental
institutions
• Examples of newly industrialized countries:
• South Korea developed as one of the world’s largest
economies during the last 50 years.
agricultural country.
It was once a poor
• Mexico has had dramatic economic growth that began in the
late 1980s because of an abundance of oil.
• GDP is the value of the total output
of goods and services produced in
a country during a year.
• Dividing the GDP by total
population creates the GDP per
capita, a measure of the average
person’s contribution to a country’s
wealth in a year.
• In MDCs, the annual GDP per
capita exceeds $20,000.
• In LDCs, the annual GDP per
capita is approximately $1,000.
• The annual GDP per capita in
newly industrialized countries
falls
between
$1,000
and
$20,000.
• GDP is strongly related to
many social characteristics,
since economic development is
dependent on a skilled work
force.
• Social characteristics include:
• literacy rates
• education levels
Annual Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
Per Capita
• MDCs usually have the fewest
workers in the primary sector, and
the most in the tertiary sector.
• LDCs have a larger percentage of
workers in the primary sector,
generally occupied as farmers.
• Middle income nations
have workers spread
among the three economic
sectors:
• primary
• secondary
• tertiary
• Workers in MDCs are more
productive than those in LDCs,
largely because they have
access to more:
• machines
• tools
• equipment
• Workers in LDCs rely more on
animal and human power.
• Productivity can be measured by
the value added by each worker.
• Value added in manufacturing may
be figured by subtracting the costs
of raw materials and energy from
the gross value of the product.
The value added in MDCs is
much higher than in LDCs.
• Development requires access
to raw materials than can be
transformed
into
useful
products.
• Raw materials include:
• minerals
• trees
• Energy to operate factories is
also necessary.
• Energy takes the form of:
• oil
• coal
• water
• natural gas
• During the 19th century, an
important
motivation
for
European empires was control
of natural resources in other
areas.
• Today countries have access to
raw materials through world
trade.
• MDCs have wealth for both
essential and nonessential
goods.
• Essential goods include:
• food
• shelter
• clothing
• Nonessential goods include:
• cars
• telephones
• televisions
• The production and sale of
nonessential goods in MDCs
are vital to the economy.
• Few people in LDCs have the
means to buy nonessential
goods. Therefore, the growth
potential of economies is
limited.
• Economic development is
often accompanied by
social development such
as:
• high rates of literacy
• access to formal education
• good health care
• Economic development also changes
demographic characteristics such as:
• life expectancy
• birth rates
• death rates
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Economic geography
Cultural landscape
Social landscape
Industrialization
Mass production
Industrial Revolution
Primary sector
Secondary sector
Tertiary sector
Quaternary sector
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Post-industrialism
MDCs
LDCs
Newly industrialized countries
Compressed modernity
Economic indicators
GDP
GDP Per Capita
Value added
Essential goods
Nonessential goods
Consumer goods
Advanced Placement
Human Geography
Session 2
• Two conflicting theories have guided social
scientists in the 20th century in answering the
question.
• Those theories are:
• THE MODERNIZATION MODEL
AND
• DEPENDENCY THEORY
• According to this theory, Britain was the FIRST
country to begin to develop its industry.
• The Industrial Revolution was spurred by a
combination of:
• prosperity
• trade connections
• inventions
• natural resources
• Max Weber asserted that Western Europe had
a cultural environment that favored change.
• The growing importance of individualism
steadily replaced the traditional emphasis on
community.
• The British model spread to other European nations
and the U.S., which prospered because they built
on British ingenuity and economic practices.
• By extension, any country that wants to improve its
economy should follow the British model and enjoy
modernization, or “westernization.”
• Modernization theory identifies tradition as the
greatest barrier to economic development.
• In societies with strong family systems and a
reverence for the past, the culture discourages people
from adopting new technologies.
• As a result, standards of living are not raised.
• Dependency theory puts the primary
responsibility for global poverty on rich
nations.
• The theory also holds that economic
development is blocked by industrialized
nations that exploit the poor countries.
A favela in Rio de Janeiro
How can a country develop when its natural
and human resources are controlled by a
handful of prosperous industrialized
countries?
Inequality has its roots in the colonial
era when European nations exploited
resources in various parts of the world.
• Although many countries gained independence
in the 20th century, they have not gained
economic wealth.
• This theory is an outgrowth of Marxism, which
emphasizes exploitation of one social class of
the other.
• Many
LDCs
have
experimented with various
forms of socialism.
• Their intent is to nationalize
industry and narrow the gap
between rich and poor.
Modernization Theory holds that
economic prosperity is open to all
countries.
According
to
W.W.
Rostow,
modernization occurs in four stages.
• People in traditional societies
build their lives around:
Stage One
• families
• local communities
• religious beliefs
• Wealth is generally limited.
• Most people are subsistence
farmers.
Stage Two
• Political leaders encourage
people to produce goods for
their own consumption AND
for trade.
• Sustained growth takes hold.
• Urbanization increases.
Stage Two
• Technological and production
breakthroughs occur.
• Individualism flourishes, often
at the expense of families and
traditional customs.
Stage Three
• Economic growth is widely
accepted.
• People focus on higher living
standards and can afford
more luxuries.
• Poverty is reduced and
material goods are much
more common.
• Cities grow as more people
leave farms.
• Modernization is evident in
the country’s core.
• Population growth decreases.
• International trade expands.
Stage Three
Stage Four
• Economic development raises
living standards.
• Mass production encourages
consumption
of
industrial
products.
• Items that have been luxuries in
earlier stages of development
now become necessities (e.g.
automobiles).
Stage Four
• This stage is marked by
high incomes.
• A majority of the workers
are involved in the tertiary
(service) sector of the
economy.
• This theory claims that high-income
countries can help poorer countries by
encouraging them to:
• control population growth
• increase food production
• take advantage of industrial technology
High income countries also help
poorer countries with
foreign aid.
• Socialist countries believe that modernization
theory provides justification for capitalist systems to
continue to exploit non-capitalist countries.
• Others believe that modernization simply cannot
occur in many poor countries.
• Critics also assert that rich nations, which
benefit from the status quo, often block paths
to development for poor countries.
• Another criticism is that the theory suggests that
the causes of poverty lie in the poor countries
themselves, which means that it blames victims
for their own plight.
• In 1974, Wallerstein explained economic
development using a model of the capitalist
world economy, a global economic system
that is based on high-income nations with
market economies.
• He traced economic inequality among
nations to the colonial era when Europeans
first took advantage of the rest of the world.
• Wallerstein divided today’s countries into
three types, according to how they fit into the
global economy:
• Core countries
• Countries of the periphery
• Countries of the semiperiphery
• This category includes the rich
countries of the world that fuel
the global economy by taking
raw materials and channeling
wealth, through multinational
corporations, to:
• North America
• Europe
• Australia
• Japan
• This category includes lowincome countries that were
exploited during the colonial
era.
• These countries continue to
support rich countries today by
providing inexpensive labor.
• Countries of the periphery
are also a large market for
industrial products.
• The remaining countries of the
world have characteristics that
place
them
somewhere
between the core and the
periphery.
• Countries of the semiperiphery
exert more power than
peripheral countries but are
dominated to some extent by
the core.
• The world economy benefits rich
societies and harms other
countries by making them
dependent on the core.
• Dependency is perpetuated by
narrow, export-oriented products
such as oil, coffee, and fruit.
• Poorer countries lack industrial capacity so
they are caught in a cycle of selling inexpensive
raw materials and buying expensive
manufactured goods.
• As a result, foreign debt cripples poorer
countries even further.
Dependency theory emphasizes
the idea that NO COUNTRY
develops in isolation because the
global economy shapes the
destiny of all nations.
• Critics disagree that wealth is a zero-sum
commodity, as if no one gets richer without
someone getting poorer.
• They believe that new wealth is created
through:
• ambition
• hard work
• new uses of technology
• Critics also believe that the theory places blame on
rich countries that have a long history of supporting
economies of nations such as:
• India
• South Korea
• Japan
• The poorer countries have been supported through
foreign investments that foster economic growth.
• Dependency theorists are also
criticized for ignoring cultural
factors in poor countries that
discourage economic growth.
• Corrupt leaders may contribute to
poor economic health in a country
that lacks a strong rule of law, since
the country’s wealth is monopolized
by the elite.
This model encourages LDCs
to isolate newer businesses
from competition from large
international corporations.
How can LDCs escape
global inequalities?
The government can:
• Shield local businesses from trade in
international markets
• Encourage internal growth
• Limit imports from other places
Another approach to
protecting local markets:
• Require international companies
to purchase expensive licenses
that discourage them from
selling
within
the
newly
industrialized country’s borders.
Example: India
• India has used all of the
methods described to
encourage internal economic
development.
• However, problems
persisted.
Problems in India
• Inefficiency
• Little incentive for businesses in
India to develop better
products
• Complex bureaucracy that
hampered development
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Modernization Model
Dependency Theory
Industrial Revolution
Individualism
Westernization
Modernization
Marxism
Socialism
Sustained growth
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Mass consumption
Core
Semiperiphery
Periphery
Status quo
Foreign debt
Foreign investments
Self sufficiency theory
Advanced Placement
Human Geography
Session 3
• Prior to the Industrial Revolution, industrial
centers existed in:
• China: silk factories
• India: metal workshops
Most work was done by
hand and powered by
water and/or wind prior
to the
Industrial Revolution.
• The invention of the steam engine was a huge
breakthrough for industry.
• It was invented by James Watt.
• The engine could pump water more efficiently
than water mills used at the time.
• New methods for smelting iron were
discovered that transformed coal into
high-carbon coke.
• The textile industry was one of the FIRST to benefit
from new steam-powered machines and smelting
processes.
• New inventions helped to weave cloth.
• British factories began to demand more raw materials
such as:
• wool
• linen
• cotton
The textile industry was transformed from
home-based industries to a small number
of large factories centered in a
few locations.
• Britain had:
• a stable government
• wealth from overseas ventures
• an abundant supply of coal
• good transportation and
communications systems
The first railroad in England was
opened in 1825, and soon major
cities were connected by rail.
• Ships benefited from steam engines.
• England expanded its industrial power as
steam-powered vessels began crossing the
Atlantic Ocean.
INDUSTRIAL BRITAIN BY 1850
The first industries arose in northern and
western England around abundant coal and
iron-ore deposits. Railroads connected the
major cities to one another and to the coast
for shipping.
• Britain had an enormous comparative
advantage over other areas.
• Britain’s creator role in the Industrial
Revolution allowed expansion of its
colonial empire to further its prosperity
and power.
• The new industries transformed
England’s landscape.
• Cities
grew
dramatically,
especially in north-central England
where a belt of major coalfields
was located.
• Mainland Europe:
Another
industrial
belt
developed
around
coalfields
that
stretched through…
• northern France
• southern Belgium
• the Netherlands
• Germany
• Poland
• Iron ore was found in the industrial belt in
mainland Europe.
• Economic activity developed accordingly.
THE DIFFUSION OF THE INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION
The
Industrial
Revolution began in
England in the late
18th century and
diffused
across
Europe,
following
belts of coalfields
and iron ore.
• Although Western Europe had abundant raw
materials, France, Britain, and the Low
Countries had access to resources from their
colonial empires.
• Europe also had skilled laborers as well as
established trade routes to facilitate exchange
of new products.
Industry had diffused as far as northern Spain,
southern Scandinavia, and the Ukraine.
This shows the
area of diffusion.
• Industrialization
had
diffused
westward across the Atlantic to
North America.
• Natural resources and available
land space encouraged economic
development in this region.
• The first U.S. textile mill was
built in Rhode Island in 1791
by Samuel Slater.
• Slater was a former worker
in an English factory.
• Industry grew because of government
protection
through
embargoes
on
European trade.
• Most early industry grew in the
northeastern United States.
• The area lacked abundant natural resources.
• However, there was a large population from
Boston to Washington, D.C.
• As a result, the Northeast provided a large
market for consumption of industrial products.
• New York City became one of the world’s
great ports.
• The city had a large skilled and
semiskilled labor force.
• New York also had a natural harbor for
break-of-bulk,
where
cargo
was
transferred from one type of carrier to
another. Example: Goods could be
transferred from ships to trains and trucks
and vice versa.
• Europe had developed a huge industrial base.
• The United States was rapidly catching up to
Europe.
• However, industrialization had NOT diffused to the
rest of the world, except for areas settled by
Europeans (e.g. Australia).
• The use of coal as an energy source
diminished.
• The use of oil and natural gas greatly
increased.
• Industrialized nations needed these products
to run their:
• power plants
• machinery
• cars
• airplanes
• ships
Oil and natural gas became common forms of
energy for heating homes and providing
household conveniences, such as heating water.
• The U.S. and industrialized Europe turned to
foreign countries for their energy needs.
• Those countries included:
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Saudi Arabia
Kuwait
Iran
Russia
China
Mexico
Venezuela
Nigeria
Oil enriched countries that played host to
American and European multinational
companies.
• Most oil-rich nations signed agreements with
these companies that allowed a great deal of
wealth to return to the U.S. and Europe.
• These
agreements
have
produced
international tensions between developing
countries and the established industrialized
powers.
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Industrial centers
Water and wind power
Steam engine
James Watt
Home-based industries
Importance of railroads
Comparative advantage
Industrial belt
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Raw materials
Skilled laborers
Semiskilled laborers
Samuel Slater
Embargoes
Break-of-bulk
Multinational companies
Advanced Placement
Human Geography
Session 4
Location theory explains the locational
pattern of economic activities by
identifying factors that influence this
pattern.
The patterns formed by primary
and secondary industries divide
the world into regions based on
economic activities.
• Primary
industry
develops around the
location of natural
resources.
• Example: the industrial belt
in the British Midlands.
• As transportation improves,
secondary industry develops.
• Secondary industry is less
dependent
on
resource
location.
• Raw materials may be
transported to factories for
manufacturing.
Variable costs
Location depends on
several factors.
•Energy,
labor,
and
transportation are less
expensive in some areas
than others. Low costs
encourage industries to
develop.
Location depends on
several factors.
Distance decay
•As distance increases, business
activity decreases until it
becomes impractical to do
business.
Where are industries more likely
to serve markets?
• In nearby places, largely because of
friction of distance.
•Immanuel Wallerstein first
used the following terms in
1974:
•core
•periphery
•semiperiphery
• He used the terms to promote
dependency theory among nations.
• Many economic geographers now use
the core-periphery model to describe
economic spatial patterns in general.
• Core regions have concentrations of primary
and secondary industries.
• Peripheral regions do not.
• Semiperipheral regions have some industries in
contrast to peripheries, but not as many as the
core regions.
Even within core countries
wealthy urban cores lie in contrast
to depressed rural peripheries.
Example: modern-day United States
• “High tech” concentrations create wealth that
contrasts to rural areas or “rust belt” industrial areas
that provide few job opportunities for young people.
• “High tech” areas include the Pacific coastline, the
Northeast, some interior cities (e.g. Austin, Texas).
With more jobs in the service sector, people move
to areas where those jobs are provided, leaving
the peripheral areas with even fewer resources
than they had before.
A look at India…
• This
country
has
clear
core/peripheral distinctions.
• High tech jobs are often outsourced
by Western companies and are
growing rapidly in urban centers.
• Urban centers contrast to peripheral
areas that still adhere to traditional
customs and occupations.
• In his Theory of the Location of Industries published in
1909, Weber developed a model for the location of
secondary industries.
• Weber identified points for particular inter-related
activities, such as:
• manufacturing plants
• mines
• markets
• Weber’s industrial model
has been compared to Von
Thünen’s agricultural model.
• Both are examples of
location theory that explain
patterns
of
economic
activities.
The least cost theory explains the
location of industries in terms of three
factors:
•transportation
•labor
•agglomeration
• The site of industry is chosen
in part by the cost of moving
raw materials to the factory
and finished products to the
market.
• Business owners look for the
least expensive transportation
costs.
• Truck transport is
cheapest over short
distances.
• Railroads are most cost
efficient over medium
distances.
• Ships are cheapest over
long distances.
• Transportation involves
terminal costs which vary
considerably.
• Terminal costs are least
expensive for trucks and
most expensive for ships.
• The cost of labor is important
when determining the location
of secondary industries.
• Cheap labor may allow an
industry to make up for higher
transportation costs.
• Example:
A factory may
relocate from the U.S. to
Mexico where transportation
costs to market increase but
are more than made up by
cheaper labor costs.
If several industries cluster
in one city, they can
provide
support
by
sharing
•talents
•services
•facilities
A restaurant needs furniture
and equipment, and the
companies that provide
those products have workers
that bring business to the
restaurant.
AN EXAMPLE…
AN EXAMPLE…
All the workers need clothes
that may be provided by a
clothing store that also needs
furniture and equipment and
employs people who eat in
the restaurant.
• The point of agglomeration
explains location of industry.
• Excessive agglomeration may
lead to an increase in labor
and transportation costs. This
is called deglomeration, or
the exodus of businesses from
a crowded area.
• The substitution principle suggest that business owners
can juggle expenses such as:
• labor
• land rents
• transportation
• This balancing of expenses allows a business to be
profitable within a larger area than Weber’s model
suggests.
Another approach to location theory is locational
interdependence, or the influence on a firm’s
locational decision by locations chosen by its
competitors.
This model is concerned with variable revenue
analysis, or the firm’s ability to capture a market
that will earn it more customers and money than
its competitors.
• An example of this theory was
provided by the economist,
Harold Hotelling:
• Two ice cream vendors on a beach
sold identical products and had a
fixed demand for ice cream from
their customers (those on the
beach).
• Where should each vendor locate?
• Example (continued):
• In reality, what generally happens is that both
vendors on the beach will cluster in the middle.
• That way each can have half but can also compete
for those customers located in the middle.
• This maximizes the customer base.
• Example (continued)
• The problem is that some customers will
have to walk farther to get ice cream.
• They may then change their minds and
not want ice cream.
• If that happens, the vendors might have
to relocate.
Below is an illustration of locational
interdependence using the example of
two vendors on a beach.
• Situation factors have to do
primarily with transportation
—bringing raw materials or
parts into a factory and
shipping the finished goods to
consumers or retailers.
• Bulk-reducing industries usually
locate factories close to raw
materials because the raw
materials are heavier and
bulkier than the finished
products.
• Examples: North American copper
industry; U.S. steel industry
• Factories for bulk-gaining
industries usually determine
location by accessibility to the
marketplace.
• Examples:
canned
food;
beverage products
• Weight
is
gained
and
transportation costs are increased
so being close to consumers is
important!
• Single-market manufacturers
also cluster near their
markets.
• Example: clothing manufacturers
who ship their goods to New
York City
• Von Thünen noted for
farmers that perishable
products need to be
close to large urban
markets.
• Site factors are particular to a
geographic location and focus
on varying costs of:
• land
• labor
• capital
• Modern factories are located
in suburban or rural areas,
and NOT in center cities,
where
land
costs
are
prohibitive for the space
necessary for production.
• Climate may also impact
location decisions, with some
industries drawn to relatively
mild climates and opportunities
for
year-round
outdoor
recreation activities.
• The cost of labor is another
consideration, especially for
labor-intensive industries.
• Examples:
• fiber-spinning
• weaving
• cutting and sewing fabric into
clothing
• Textile industries require skilled
workers and so they often
choose locations where labor
costs are low.
• Example: China and other
Asian countries have cheaper
labor.
• Sometimes businesses are
influenced by the willingness of
banks in a geographical
location to provide loans to
entrepreneurs.
• Example: California’s Silicon
Valley
• Banks offered large incentive
packages to persuade businesses
to locate within their city limits.
• Footloose industries are neither
resource nor market-oriented.
• Example:
Both parts and
finished products in the
manufacture of computers are
expensive, so transportation is
only a small part of total
production costs.
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Location theory
Core
Periphery
Semi-periphery
Variable costs
Friction of distance
Distance decay
Core-Periphery Model
Immanuel Wallerstein
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Dependency theory
Alfred Weber
Least Cost Theory
Agglomeration
Transport media
Deglomeration
Locational
interdependence theory
• Hotelling
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Situation
Site
Bulk-gaining industries
Bulk-reducing industries
Single market
manufacturers
• Footloose industries
Advanced Placement
Human Geography
Session 5
• Globalization means that every
country’s industrial development
is related to conditions in the
global economy.
• The position of places in the
global web is also crucial.
• Site and situation factors are important when
studying economic activities.
• The role of agglomeration in location decisions, for
instance, has reached new dimensions as urban areas
have grown much larger and international contacts
have increased.
• Space-time compression describes the
reduction in the time it takes to diffuse
something to distant places as a result of
improved
communications
and
transportation systems.
• Infrastructure is made up services that
support economic activities.
Why is global distribution of industry
uneven?
• historical patterns of development
• colonization
• current power relations among nations
• geographical context
Only a few countries have become
major industrial economies because
they have:
•abundant natural resources
•favorable relative location
•stable political circumstances
Only a few countries have become
major industrial economies because
they have :
•economic leadership
•high levels of educated and trained
executives and workers
The four areas of the world with the
largest agglomeration of industry:
• Western and Central Europe
• Eastern North America
• Russia and the Ukraine
• Eastern Asia
PRIMARY INDUSTRIAL
REGIONS
OF THE WORLD
Most of the primary industrial areas of the world exist
within a “belt” that stretches from North America, through
Europe, southern Russia, China, South Korea and Japan.
Even within the belt, other economic activities take place.
• After World War II, American
aid to new factories helped to
rebuild and incorporate new
technologies in industries.
• This aid revived Europe’s economies
overall.
Primary Industrial
Region
• Europe’s
economic
and
political
influence
has
allowed it to withstand
severe damage from 20th
century wars.
Primary Industrial
Region
• However, other parts of the world
have come to challenge its
industrial preeminence.
Primary Industrial
Region
• World Wars I and II weakened
Europe’s economy, allowing the
U.S. to emerge as the world’s
strongest industrial power by
the mid-20th century.
• Production of war materials
bolstered a developing industrial
economy.
• Canada benefitted as well.
NORTH AMERICAN
MANUFACTURING
The core area
of
North
American
manufacturing
• Other important industrial
areas developed in North
America during the 20th
century.
Primary Industrial
Region
North
Americ
a
• Newer industrial
include:
Primary Industrial
Region
areas
• Richmond, VA to Birmingham, AL: iron
and steel
• Atlanta, GA to Richmond, VA: cotton,
tobacco, and furniture
• Oklahoma to Dallas-Ft. Worth, TX,
Houston, TX, and New Orleans, LA:
growing oil industry
Other
North
American
Manufacturing
Regions. During the 20th century, manufacturing
spread to other areas of North America from the
Manufacturing Belt in the Northeastern United
States.
Primary Industrial
Region
By the end of the 19th
century, the Ukraine was
affected by the diffusion of
the Industrial Revolution as
it spread eastward across
Europe.
Primary Industrial
Region
• When Russia became the
Soviet Union in the 20th
century, the Ukraine produced
much of the country’s coal.
• The Ukraine grew into one of
the
world’s
largest
manufacturing complexes by
the mid-20th century.
Primary Industrial
Region
• Other manufacturing areas
grew around Moscow and
Leningrad (now St. Petersburg).
• After World War II, a series of
dams were constructed along
the Volga River, making
electric power plentiful.
• Canals linked the Volga to
both Moscow and the Don
River, making it easy to
transport
raw
materials,
including oil and natural gas
from nearby reserves.
Primary Industrial
Region
Primary Industrial
Region
• Industry in other regions in
Russia follow the TransSiberian
Railroad
that
connects western cities across
southern Siberia all the way to
the Pacific coastline.
RUSSIAN INDUSTRIAL AREAS
Although many of the industrial regions of the former
Soviet Union are outside the boundaries of the modern
Russian Federation, several industrial areas remain,
including the region around the capital of Moscow, St.
Petersburg, and the Volga River. The eastern regions
follow the Trans-Siberian Railroad.
•Japan was the earliest country in
Primary Industrial
Region
East Asia to industrialize.
• Japan’s economic development
began during the second half of
the 19th century with the Meiji
Restoration,
a
governmentsponsored
campaign
for
modernization and colonization.
Japan
Under the leadership of
oligarchs, or industrial and
military leaders who came to
political power, Japan:
Primary Industrial
Region
• modernized industries
• organized armed forces
• transformed education and
transportation systems so that
they followed the Western
model
Japan
Primary Industrial
Region
• After the massive destruction
of World War II, Japan rebuilt
its economy so that by the
1980s it was a major postindustrial society.
• Japan’s dominant region of
industrialization is the Kanto Plain,
which includes Tokyo.
Japan
• Many industries and businesses
chose
Tokyo
as
their
headquarters in order to be near
government decision makers.
Primary Industrial
Region
The “Four Tigers”
Primary Industrial
Region
• Japan’s economic dominance was
challenged in the late 20th
century by:
• South Korea
• Taiwan
• Hong Kong
• Singapore
The “Four Tigers”
• All “Four Tigers” used the
strategy of export-oriented
industrialization to directly
integrate their economies into
the global economy.
Primary Industrial
Region
• They concentrated on economic
production to find a place in
international markets.
The “Four Tigers”
• These countries have focused
on the “product life cycle”:
Primary Industrial
Region
• An innovator country produces
something new.
• Next that country moves on to
other innovations.
• Meanwhile, other countries think
of ways to make the first product
better and cheaper and export it
back to the innovator country.
• The “Four Tigers”
• Asian countries have prospered
from the product life cycle with
automobiles and electronics in
their trade with the United
States.
Primary Industrial
Region
China
Primary Industrial
Region
• China has long been a
political power, but its major
industrial expansion did not
begin until the mid-20th century
under communist leaders.
• Its earliest industrial heartland
was the Northeast District in
Manchuria, centered on coal
and iron deposits.
China
• Other major industrial
areas developed around:
• Beijing
• Shanghai
• Hong Kong
Primary Industrial
Region
China
has
successfully
challenged Japan for economic
and political leadership in the
early 21st century.
Primary Industrial
Region
CHINESE INDUSTRIAL AREAS
China’s first large industrial area was the
Northeast District, centered on coal and iron
deposits located in the basin of the Liao River.
The Pacific Rim includes
countries that border the Pacific
Ocean on their eastern shores.
Primary Industrial
Region
• More cities in China are
industrializing, partly through the
creation of special economic zones.
Primary Industrial
Region
Special Economic Zones
(SEZs) are areas where foreign
investment is allowed
capitalistic
ventures
encouraged.
and
are
• Secondary industrial regions lie south of the
world’s primary industrial region.
• These regions and their industrial centers are
not as large as the primary regions, but their
economies are growing.
• Secondary industrial regions include:
• Thailand
• Indonesia
• South Africa around Johannesburg
• Egypt around Cairo
• Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
• a corridor between Mexico City and Guadalajara
• A manufacturing zone was created in the
1960s in northern Mexico just south of the
border with the United States.
• Workers in this maquiladora district have
produced goods primarily for consumers in the
U.S.
A number of U.S. companies have established
plants in the zone to transform imported, dutyfree components or raw materials into finished
industrial products.
• Over 20% of Mexico’s entire industrial labor force
works in the maquiladora district.
• Interactions with the U.S. market provide a good
example of the new international division of labor in
which some components of products are made in
one country and other in another.
• The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
was a treaty signed in 1995 by Mexico, the U.S., and
Canada.
• The treaty eliminated the barriers to free trade,
including most tariffs among the three countries.
Boon?
• NAFTA was hailed a free trade area that would
rival the European Union.
Hindrance?
• Integrating the markets of these different countries
has been difficult, especially since Mexico has a lower
standard of living than the U.S. or Canada.
• Environmentalists fear that industries will relocate to
Mexico because of their lax environmental laws.
Hindrance?
• Mexico faces a new problem:
Maquiladora jobs are now being
lost to countries where wages are
even lower.
• Example: Mexican wages are
about twice those in China, where
wages are only about $1 per hour.
Hindrance?
• Since wage rates constitute an
important site factor, many firms
are moving from Mexico to China.
• Industrialization in India is expanding as a
result of government policies.
• Although India has no major oil reserves, it does have:
• hydroelectric potential
• large coal reserves
• iron ore deposits
India has a large labor force and a
geographical location midway between
Europe and the Pacific Rim.
• India has benefitted from global access to
information technology and electronic data
submission.
• Computer software companies are rapidly
growing in places such as Bangalore.
• Customer interaction services (“call centers”)
formerly based in the U.S. have relocated to
India.
• Examples of services now offered include:
• processing insurance claims
• taking care of banking transactions
• booking airline tickets
• making medical appointments
As a result of these changes, the Indian
economy has developed a strong tertiary
(service) sector, increasingly integrating it
into the world market.
•
•
•
•
•
Globalization
Space-time compression
Infrastructure
Primary industrial region
North American
Manufacturing Belt
• “Four Tigers”
• Product life cycle
• Special economic zones
(SEZs)
• Secondary industrial
region
• Maquiladoras
• NAFTA
• Tertiary development
• “call centers”
Advanced Placement
Human Geography
Session 6
• An increasingly integrated global economy
provides challenges for all countries, despite
their levels of development.
• The problems for more developed countries
generally differ from those of less developed
countries.
• An important challenge for more developed regions
is the protection of their markets from new competitors.
• This challenge is increasing since competition now
occurs more frequently within regional trading blocs,
or conglomerations of trade among countries within a
region.
• The three most important trading blocs are:
• North America
• The European Union
• East Asia
Since
1994,
NAFTA
countries have negotiated
with other Latin American
countries to extend the
trading bloc to new areas of
the Western Hemisphere.
Important Trading Bloc
Important Trading Bloc
• Most trade barriers have been
eliminated among the members
of the EU.
• Even European nations that are
not EU member-states depend
heavily on trade with members.
• No formal organization of
states exists in East Asia.
• However, Japanese companies
play leading roles in the
economies of the countries of
that region.
Important Trading Bloc
East
Asia
• The rapid economic development
of many Pacific Rim countries
has created a strengthening
trade bloc in East Asia in spite of
tensions among countries in this
region.
Important Trading Bloc
• Transnational corporations operate factories in
countries other than the ones in which they are
headquartered.
• Most transnational corporations are also conglomerate
corporations comprised of many smaller firms that
support the overall industry.
• Most transnational corporations are headquartered in
the U.S., but other are located in Japan or Europe.
European Union:
• Industrialization is concentrated in Germany, France, and
the United Kingdom.
• Even within those individual countries some areas are
more industrialized and richer than others.
European Union:
• Example of disparity: In France, wealth and industry
are concentrated around Paris.
• Example of disparity: The eastern part of Germany,
formerly communist, lags behind the rest of Germany.
• Example: Within the NAFTA
countries, Mexico’s economy
lags behind those of the U.S.
and Canada.
• Deindustrialization refers to the decline in
employment in the manufacturing sector of the
economy.
• Deindustrialization is commonly found in more
developed countries.
• Generally, the number of jobs in the service or
tertiary sector increases as the percentage of
jobs in industry decreases.
• Deindustrialization is particular evident in:
• The United States
• Europe
• Japan
• The economies of the Four Tigers
• Some suggest that deindustrialization is the result
of the globalization of markets as trade between
advanced economies and the developing world has
grown.
• Critics believe that the fast growth of labor-intensive
manufacturing industries in LDCs is displacing the jobs
of workers in advanced economies.
• Some believe that the adjustments between industrial
and service sectors will work themselves through
without interference.
• Advances in the service sector, rather than in the
manufacturing sector, are likely to encourage rising
standards of living in advanced economies.
• Distance from markets
• Inadequate infrastructure
• Competition with existing manufacturers in other
countries
• Wealthy consumers in MDCs
are generally far away, so
industrializing countries have
had to invest scarce resources
in constructing and subsidizing
transportation facilities such as:
• airports
• docks
• ships
• Support services for industrial
development are often lacking
in LDCs.
• These services include:
•
•
•
•
transportation
communications
equipment production
fewer schools and universities
• The control exerted by
transnational corporations
headquartered in MDCs,
but doing business globally,
is a problem for LDCs.
Transnational corporations have
used low-cost labor in LDCs but have
kept highly skilled jobs in the MDCs,
a phenomenon known as the
international division of labor.
• The international division of
labor is a process that:
• keeps global inequalities in place
• discourages new industries from
developing in LDCs
• prevents wealth from flowing
from MDCs to LDCs
As a result of the Industrial
Revolution, coal replaced wood
as the leading energy source in
North America and Western
Europe.
• The change from wood to coal relieved the
environmental pressure of deforestation.
• However, it increased the likelihood that coal,
and eventually petroleum and natural gas,
would be depleted as natural resources.
Population growth has added to the
problem but energy use in MDCs is far greater
than it is in LDCs.
• Fossil fuels – including coal, petroleum,
and natural gas – are residues of plants
and animals that were buried millions of
years ago.
• The world faces an energy problem
because
fossil
fuels,
especially
petroleum, are rapidly being depleted.
• Energy deposits that have been discovered are called
proven reserves.
• We do not know how many potential (undiscovered)
reserves there are.
• Petroleum is being consumed at a more rapid rate
than it is being found.
TOP CONSUMERS OF
OIL
Country
Usage
United States
20,700,000 bbl/day
China
6,534,000 bbl/day
Japan
5,578,000 bbl/day
Germany
2,650,000 bbl/day
Russia
2,500,000 bbl/day
India
2,450,000 bbl/day
Canada
2,294,000 bbl/day
South Korea
2,149,000 bbl/day
Brazil
2,100,000 bbl/day
France
1,970,000 bbl/day
Source: NationMaster.com
MDCs, with about 25% of the world’s population,
consume about 75% of the world’s fossil fuels.
As countries with large
populations, such as China and
India, develop industries, their
share
of
the
world’s
consumption of energy is
increasing.
• Global warming is the increase in earth’s
temperature caused primarily by the burning of
fossil fuels.
• The greenhouse effect is an anticipated warming
of earth’s surface that could melt the polar icecaps
and raise the level of the oceans enough to destroy
coastal cities.
• Another by-product of air pollution is acid rain, which
forms when sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are
released into the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels.
• Pollutants eventually make their way into lakes and
streams.
• Results include:
• corrosion of buildings and monuments
• stunted growth of forests
• death of fish
• loss of crops
The basic premise of sustainable
development is that people living today
should not impair the ability of future
generations to meet their needs.
• Irreparable harm to the environment would
compromise the earth’s future.
• Many critics believe that the pace of economic
development today is no longer sustainable, despite
the fact that natural resources still abound.
Humans may respond to environmental
problems in many ways, including the
following:
• prevention
• technological change
• mitigation
• compensation
• Some government policies
have encouraged destruction
of the environment (e.g. cheap
gasoline).
• The one-child policy in China is
an example of prevention of
over-use of natural resources
through limiting population
growth.
• Technological possibilities
include:
• installing pollution-capturing
filters for industrial runoff
• recycling industrial waste
• Damage may be undone or
reduced once it has occurred.
• Example: Chemical spills may
be cleaned up.
• Political bodies may negotiate
compensation
for
those
negatively
impacted
by
industrial wastes.
• Example: A company whose
chemical wastes have resulted
in illness and/or death among
workers may be held legally
responsible for damages.
•
•
•
•
•
Global inequalities
Global economy
Trading blocs
Trade barriers
Transnational
corporations
• Conglomerate
corporations
• Deindustrialization
• Infrastructure
• International division of
labor
• Fossil fuels
• Global warming
• Greenhouse effect
• Acid rain
• Sustainable development