Transcript The Development of Education in Korea

Contents
Ⅰ. Introduction
Ⅱ. Development Stages of Korean Education
Ⅲ. The Expansion of Educational Opportunities
and Approaches
Ⅳ. How Education contributes to Economic growth?
V. Evolution of Technical-Vocational Education
& Training
► Evolution
► Finance
► Evaluation
VI. Relevance of TVE at Upper Secondary education
2
2007-10-26
Ⅰ. Introduction
 Purposes
– Identify Korean approaches to Expanding Access
to Education and education’s contribution to the
successful economic growth in Korea
– Overview Korean experiences with Technical and
Vocational Education (TVE): Relevance of TVE and
Emerging Challenges to TVE
– Highlight key lessons learned from Korean
Experiences to the three policy questions
3
2007-10-26
Ⅱ. Development Stages of Korean Education
Four stages:
1) Economical Development Phases
- 1945~1960 : Economic disruption and recovery
- 1961~1979 : Export-oriented, high growth strategy under
the Park’s regime
- 1980~1997 : Structural adjustment and stabilized growth
- 1998~Present : Transition into knowledge-based society
2) Stages of Educational Development
- 1948~1960 : Educational reconstruction
- 1961~1980 : Educational Expansion and Economic Growth
- 1981~1997 : Exploration for the Qualitative Improvement
of Education
- 1998~Present :Restructuring Period
4
2007-10-26
Ⅱ. Development Stages of Korean Education
Modern Korean education begins in 1945
 The situation since 1945
– Korea was liberated from Japanese colonial rule with the end of
the World War Ⅱ
– Divided into two countries: South and North Korea
– US Army’s “Military Government” in South Korea(1945-1948)
– Republic of Korea was founded in 1948:
Ideological struggle and political instability
- Korean War(1950-1953): 80% school buildings destroyed
- Shortage of everything except students (P.H. Cooms)
5
2007-10-26
Ⅱ. Development Stages of Korean Education

Major Economic Indicators
Population
(1000
persons)
Employees
(1000
persons)
GDP
(billion won)
Per Capita
GDP($)
Exports
( billion $)
1945
25,120
-
-
-
-
1960
24,989
-
243
80.0
-
1970
31,435
9,617
2,764
257.6
0.84
1980
37,407
13,683
38,775
1,705.6
17.5
1990
43,390
18,085
186,691
6,077.4
65.0
2000
45,985
21,156
578,665
11,129.6
172.3
2005
47,279
22,856
806,622
16,656.4
284.4
* Population of 1945 is 1944’s. data.
6
2007-10-26
Ⅱ. Development Stages of Korean Education
 Social, Economic index of The Economic Growth Period
Industrial Origin of GDP(%)
City Population
Rate to Total(%)
Per
Capita
GNP($)
Agriculture
Mining &
Manufacturing
Services
1961
28.0(1960)
82
48.8
12.3
38.9
1970
41.1
254
50.4
14.3
35.3
1980
57.2
1,645
34.0
22.5
43.4
1990
84.0
6,147
17.9
27.6
54.5
2000
90.0
10,841
12.2
17.5
70.3
2005
90.8
16,291
7.9
18.6
73.4
Source: National Statistical Office (http://www.nso.go.kr)
7
2007-10-26
Ⅲ. The Expansion of Educational Opportunities
and Approaches
 Net Changes in No. Students
(Unit: 1,000 Persons)
Elementary
School
Middle
School
High
School
Tertiary
Total
1945
~1960
+2,247
+449
-
+96
+3,067
1960
~1980
+2,037
+1,943
+1,424
+501
+5,915
1980
~2000
-1,638
-611
+374
+2,762
+647
2000
~2005
+3
+150
-308
+185
-80
8
2007-10-26
Ⅲ. The Expansion of Educational Opportunities
and Approaches
N' of students
12,000,000
<Figure 1> C hanges of The Number of Students
Elementary Education
Expansion Period of
Completed
Secondary Education
10,000,000
Expansion Period of
Tertiary Education
8,000,000
6,000,000
4,000,000
2,000,000
0
1948 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Elementary
Middle
High
Tertiary
Total
year
9
2007-10-26
Ⅲ. The Expansion of Educational Opportunities
and Approaches
No. of Students
12,000,000
Educational Expansion
10,000,000
Restructuring
Period
Quality
Improvement
8,000,000
6,000,000
4,000,000
2,000,000
0
1948 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
Elementary
Middle
10
High
Tertiary
Total
Year
2007-10-26
Ⅲ. The Expansion of Educational Opportunities
and Approaches
 Development Approach to Korean Education
: Major Policies: Open door policy
– Six-year Compulsory Education plan (1954-1959)
– Open Door Policy to Secondary Education
 Abolition of Entrance Exam to Middle School (1968)
 High School Equalization Policy (1974)
- Abolish entrance exam and replace it with random
assignment
– Open Door Policy to Higher Education

July 30 Educational Reform (1980)
11
2007-10-26
Ⅲ. The Expansion of Educational Opportunities
and Approaches
 Low Cost Approach (LCA)
– Lowering educational standards (Large class, Double
shift classroom, Low level of teacher’s salary) to
accommodate more students at given resources
Constraints
– Application of LCA:
- Expanding Primary compulsory education
(1954-1959)
- Expanding Lower Secondary Education(1968)
- Expanding Access to Tertiary Education (1980)
12
2007-10-26
Ⅲ. The Expansion of Educational Opportunities
and Approaches
Six-year compulsory education plan(1954-1959)
 Outcome
– Universalization of primary education
year
1951
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
Enrollment Rate 69.8
82.5
89.5
89.9
91.1
92.5
96.4
 Emerging Problem
– Successive strong demand for middle school
– Resulted in the ‘exam hell’ in elementary school to
prepare entrance examination to selective middle
schools
13
2007-10-26
Ⅲ. The Expansion of Educational Opportunities
and Approaches
 Egalitarian approach
- Abolition of Entrance Exam to Lower and Upper Secondary
Education and admission by “assignment system” in 1968
and 1974
- Providing Equal chance of being admitted to Middle school
and High school
- Lowering educational standards: class size from 60 to 70
- Providing Equal school conditions
- Gradual extension of free compulsory education to middle
school from rural areas in 1984 to all area in 2004
- Priority given to “Region, Low SES, Students at Risk”
14
2007-10-26
Ⅲ. The Expansion of Educational Opportunities
and Approaches
Quantitative expansion of Secondary Education
 School Enrollment Rate:
Primary
School
Middle
School
High
School
Tertiary
1951
69.8
-
-
-
1960
95.3
32.2
20.0
6.4
1970
97.0
53.3
29.3
9.2
1980
97.7
73.3
48.8
11.1
1990
100.5
91.6
79.4
22.9
2000
97.2
95.0
89.4
50.2
2004
97.7
91.9
90.1
61.7
Source: KEDI, Statistical Yearbook of Education 2004
15
2007-10-26
Ⅲ. The Expansion of Educational Opportunities
and Approaches
Qualitative Improvement of Education by School Level
Elementary
Middle
High
Students
Per
Class
Students
Per
Teacher
Students
Per
Class
Students
Per
Teacher
Students
Per
Class
Students
Per
Teacher
1962
62.9
60.0
60.1
40.5
55.8
27.3
1965
65.4
62.4
60.7
39.4
57.0
30.2
1970
62.1
56.9
62.1
42.3
58.1
29.7
1975
56.7
51.8
64.5
43.2
58.6
31.4
1980
51.5
47.5
65.6
45.1
59.4
32.8
1985
44.7
38.3
61.7
40.0
56.9
30.9
1990
41.4
35.6
50.2
25.4
52.8
24.6
1995
36.4
28.2
48.2
24.8
47.9
21.7
2000
35.8
28.7
38.0
20.1
42.5
19.8
2005
31.8
25.1
35.3
19.3
31.0
15.1
Source : The Statistical Yearbook of Korean Education.
16
2007-10-26
Ⅲ. The Expansion of Educational Opportunities
and Approaches

Years of achieving Universal Enrollment
(Enrollment Rate 90%, Entering Rate to Upper Education 90%)
Enrollment Ratio
90%
year
Entering rate to upper school
90%
year
Elementary
1957
Middle
1990
Ele- > Middle
1979
High
1999
Middle > High
1985
Tertiary(a)
2005
High > Ter-(a)
1997
Tertiary(b)
2000
High > Ter-(b)
1995
* Tertiary(a), High > Tertiary(a) : Enrollment/Entering upper class ratio 60%.
Tertiary(b), High > Tertiary(b) : Enrollment/Entering upper class ratio 50%.
17
2007-10-26
Ⅲ. The Expansion of Educational Opportunities
and Approaches
 Key factors contributing to Expansion of Access to
Education
- Universal enrollment of Elementary Education
- Low cost approach
- Egalitarian approach
- Roles of private schools in expanding access
- Sequential expansion with Bottom-Up approach
- Gov’t budget support for Elementary-Secondary
Education by Law (12.98% of Domestic tax)
- Parent’s strong support to Education
- High level of Economic growth
18
2007-10-26
Ⅲ. The Expansion of Educational Opportunities
and Approaches
Quantitative expansion of Secondary Education
 Distribution of Educational Attainment of Population
over 25 years old(%)
year
1970
1980
1990
2000
Primary Graduate and Below
73
55
33
23
Middle School Graduate
12
18
19
13
High School Graduate
10
19
34
40
Jr College Graduate
1
1
2
8
University Graduate and over
4
7
12
16
19
2007-10-26
Ⅳ. How education contributes to economic growth?
 Cooperative Correspondence relation between
economy and education
- Developing Infra-Structure of Human Resource
- High economic growth to support educational
expansion
 Korean education developed infrastructure of
human capacity and significantly contributed to
economic take-off in 1960's
 Human Resource Development in advanced to the
manpower requirement
20
2007-10-26
Ⅳ. How education contributes to economic growth?
Educational Expansion
 Development of HRD conditions precedent to economic
growth
 Harbison & Myers's observation of Korean case of
Human Resources development for a country with per
capita GNP $380, when its per capita GNP was $ 107.
Enrollment rate
of
Secondary
Education
KOREA
Low Cost Approach
$ 107
$ 380
21
Per Capita GDP
2007-10-26
Ⅳ. How education contributes to economic growth?
Sequential Bottom-up approach
 Sequential expansion of access to education from
Elementary, Secondary and Higher Education precedent to
the manpower needs for Economic development
– Elementary Ed.
Secondary Ed.
(1960s)
– Vocational-Technical
High schools
(1970s → 1980s)
– Expansion
of Higher Education
(1980s → Present)
→ Labor Intensive light
Manufacturing
→ Capital Intensive
Heavy-Chemical Industry
→ Electronics, High-tech
Knowledge Industry
22
2007-10-26
Ⅳ. How education contributes to economic growth?
 Expand and upgrade Technical and Vocational
Education
 Expand and upgrade Technical and Vocational
Education and Training Infrastructure to develop
technical manpower
– 1960’s : Vocational High school
Jr Technical Colleges
Technical Universities
– 1970’s : Science Education
– Use of External Loans (IDA, IBRD etc)
23
2007-10-26
Ⅳ. How education contributes to economic growth?
Economy’s support to educational development
 The Law of ‘Grants for Elementary-Secondary
Education’ are enacted. This is the return from
Economic Growth to Education Sector
– 12.98% of Domestic Tax
– Salaries for elementary school teachers legally secured
24
2007-10-26
V. Evolution of Technical-Vocational Education
& Training
 TVET System
– Vocational-Technical High Schools
– Jr Technical Colleges (2-3 years)
– Universities
– Open Technical Colleges for Employed
– Public Job-training centers under Ministry of Labor
– Private Technical training industries (Nurse-aid, etc)
25
2007-10-26
V. Evolution of Technical-Vocational Education
& Training
 Evolution of TVE in 1960~1980: Education for
Economic Growth Period
- Policy priority given to TVET during implementation
of Economic development plans since 1962
- Expansion of Vocational High Schools: 1962~1980
· Enrollment increase
· Curriculum development (1963)
· Increase Investment and use loan programs
(ICA, IDA, ADB, World Bank)
26
2007-10-26
V. Evolution of Technical-Vocational Education
& Training
 Enrollment of Technical-Vocational High schools
- 1970- 1980’s 45% in High school enrollment
- decreased from 45%(1980) to 27.7% (2006)
<Number of Students by School Track>
Years
General High School
Vocational High School
1970
320,000(53.3)
280,000(46.7)
1980
930,000(55.0)
760,000(45.0)
1990
1,470,000(64.5)
810,000(35.5)
2000
1,320,000(63.8)
750,000(36.2)
2006
1,280,000(72.3)
490,000(27.7)
27
2007-10-26
V. Evolution of Technical-Vocational Education
& Training
 School conditions of Vocational High schools
compared to General High schools
- less students per teacher
- less students per class
General High School
Vocational High School
Years
No. of
Schools
No. of
students
per teacher
No. of
Students
per class
No. of
Schools
No. of
students
per teacher
No. of
students
per class
1970
408
32.0
62.1
481
27.5
56.1
1980
748
33.9
59.9
605
32.6
59.6
1990
1,096
25.4
53.6
587
23.4
51.5
2000
1,193
20.9
44.1
764
18.2
40.3
2005
1,382
15.9
33.9
713
13.5
30.0
28
2007-10-26
V. Evolution of Technical-Vocational Education
& Training
 Employment rate of vocational high school graduates
decreased from 76.6% (1990) to 25.9%(2006)
 69% of the graduates entered to tertiary education(2006)
 Identity of vocational high schools questioned
<Vocational High School Employment and Entering rate to HE>

Years
Employment rate(%)1
Entering rate(%)2
1970
50.2
9.6
1980
51.1
11.4
1990
76.6
8.3
2000
51.4
42.0
2006
25.9
68.6
1. Number of employees/graduates
2. Number of entering to tertiary ed/graduates
29
2007-10-26
V. Evolution of Technical-Vocational Education
& Training
 The enrollment of Junior Colleges and College of
technology increased since 1990’s
- more students entered to Jr colleges
< Number of Schools and Students in Vocational High School,
Junior Colleges & U. Of Technology>
Years
Vocational High
Junior Colleges
U. of Technology
N. of
Schools
N. Of
Students
N. Of
Schools
N. Of
Students
N. Of
Schools
N. Of
Students
1970
481
275,015
65
30,000
-
-
1980
606
764,187
128
170,000
-
-
1990
587
810,651
117
320,000
6
520,000
2000
764
746,986
159
920,000
19
171,000
2005
713
503,104
152
820,000
18
189,000
30
2007-10-26
V. Evolution of Technical-Vocational Education
& Training
 Identity of Technical-Vocational High
Schools questioned : 1990’s
- Demand shift from TV high school to Jr Technical
college
- Weak Incentive system of semi-skilled job (Pay,
promotions, working conditions)
- Less opportunities for occupational growth, Lifelong learning and HRD
- Directions for development of VH, not clear
- Students preference higher education to
vocational high school
31
2007-10-26
V. Evolution of Technical-Vocational Education
& Training
 Policy mistakes for Technical-Vocational
High Schools in 1990’s
- ‘Structural adjustment policy’ of TV high schools to increase
the number of students in vocational high school from
32%(1990) to 50% failed
- Introduce ‘2+1’ system to provide one-year practice on the
Job for Technical High School students. No merit point.
· The outcomes depend upon the quality of on the Job practice
- New Developments
Specialized vocational schools emerged (animation, cartoons,
design, computer networking, etc)
· Establish KRIVET: Korean Research Institute for Vocational
Education and Training
·
32
2007-10-26
V. Evolution of Technical-Vocational Education
& Training
Shift of emphasis to Science-Technical
Education: 1980’s~2000
 Priority shifted from TVET toward ScienceTechnical Education as Korean Economy focus
New Technology Industry
– Support Science education in Elementary &
Secondary
– Human Resource Development in Science-Tech
with BK project (HRD support program at
Graduate level)
– Research Support
33
2007-10-26
V. Evolution of Technical-Vocational Education
& Training
 Financing Technical and Vocational High School
- Education budget in Government budget
- 18~22 %
- 2000’s 20.2%
(Unit: 1 billion won, %)
구분
Government
Budget(A)1)
MOE
Budget(B)2)
B / GDP (%)
B/A (%)
1970
446
78
2.8
17.6
1980
5,804
1,099
2.8
18.9
1990
22,689
5,062
2.7
22.3
2000
93,937
19,172
3.3
20.4
2006
144,808
29,127
3.6
20.1
34
2007-10-26
V. Evolution of Technical-Vocational Education
& Training
 Government allocated less than 2% of Government budget
for Technical and Vocational education in 1990’s.

The share of vocational High schools in TVE budget
decreased from 40%(1996) to 18.4% (2000)
(Unit: 1 million won, %)
Years
Vocational High S.
Junior College
1996
99,320(40.2)
94,614(38.3)
52,966(21.5)
246,900
1997
126,100(33.5)
148,700(39.5)
101,300(26.9)
376,100
1998
120,465(34.4)
165,964(47.4)
63,921(18.2)
350,350
1999
70,127(21.6)
192,036(59.1)
62,444(19.3)
324,607
2000
55,633(18.4)
187,115(61.7)
60,281(19.9)
303,029
35
U. of Technology
Total
2007-10-26
V. Evolution of Technical-Vocational Education
& Training
 Student pay 32.4% of the cost in Vocational high school
- In Public schools 21.4%
Private schools 46.9%
 Student pay more of the cost in General High schools
2000
C /Per
Capita
GDP
Tuition
in won (B)
2,428,000
1,106,000
45.5
2,149
19.8
Public
2,740,000
858,000
31.3
2,425
22.4
Private
2,194,000
1,292,000
58.9
1,941
17.9
2,611,000
846,000
32.4
2,311
21.3
Public
3,035,000
650,000
21.4
2,686
24.8
Private
2,204,000
1,035,000
47.0
1,950
18.0
General High School
Vocational High
School
36
B/A
(%)
Expendi
ture
in $(C)
Expenditure
in won(A)
2007-10-26
V. Evolution of Technical-Vocational Education
& Training
 Share of Government’s support in the
expenditures of Vocational High schools in 2000.
Total
Expenditure
(million $)
Vocational High
School
Govt.
(%)
Students
(%)
Others
(%)
Expenditure
per Student($)
1,726
65.1
32.4
2.6
2,301
Public
984
77.9
21.4
0.7
2,655
Private
742
48.1
46.9
5.0
1,947
2,309
2.5
78.7
18.8
3,894
Public
31
64.7
31.6
3.7
1,239
Private
2,278
1.6
79.3
19.0
3,982
487
31.2
60.7
8.1
2,832
Public
217
60.5
33.8
5.7
2,655
Private
270
7.8
82.2
10.0
3,009
Junior College
U. Of
Technology
37
GDP
per
Capita($)
10,841
2007-10-26
V. Evolution of Technical-Vocational Education
& Training
Evaluation Remarks on TV High school in Korea
 Technical-Vocational High Schools
– Remarkable contribution in 1960’s-1970’s
– As Korean economy utilizes new technologies, TV high
schools face identity crisis
 Jr. Technical Colleges and Science-Engineering
programs of Universities play more important roles
of HRD in 1980’s-2000
38
2007-10-26
V. Evolution of Technical-Vocational Education
& Training
New challenges and Perspectives emerged for
HRD at Individual and Institutional level
– Individual level:
 developing core competence and job-related
capabilities
 HRD through Life-long learning
 Upgrade qualification & Certification
 Career-path development
– Institutional Level:
 Developing Relevance, Quality, Competitiveness of
the program
 Market control model: autonomy and market
evaluation
 Use Public Support in the Voucher Form
39
2007-10-26
V. Evolution of Technical-Vocational Education
& Training
 New Policy tasks emerged
– Upgrade and transform vocational high schools
into “Diversified-specialized Elite Vocational
Schools”
– Strengthening functional relationship among
general high schools, vocational high schools
and Jr. Technical Colleges
– Develop “Private technical institutes” and OJT
Centers in corporations as specialized technical
institute
40
2007-10-26
VI .The relevance of TVE at Upper secondary
education
 Relevance of TVE: The most important dimension of TVE
 Three factors related to the Relevance of TVE
1) Market Demand: demands of graduates from the market ( ++  + )
2) Supply side: capacities to develop
 technical core competency( -- )
 social capital ( ? )
 self-directed learning capacities( ?? )
3) Relative Position of TVE lowered:
 As more high school graduate enter Tertiary education,
 As Economy developed,
 Job training for lower sec graduates ( - )
 TVE at Upper Sec Edu ( - )
41
2007-10-26
VI .The relevance of TVE at Upper secondary
education
 Emerging Challenges to TVE at Upper Sec Education
(1) Demand change: As economy grow and develop,
the demands of TVE and job competency are changing.
- demand of simple, low level, technical competency
decreased
- and demand of higher level, multi-tasking job
competency increased.
(2) Quality Upgrade: Unless TVE at Upper
Secondary Education upgrade its quality level, TVE at
USE lose its relevance of TVE.
42
2007-10-26
VI .The relevance of TVE at Upper secondary
education
 Upgrading the Quality of TVE at USE
(1) Horizontal Upgrading: Dual mode approach
- Establish a few but “Specialized Intensive Elite” Technical and
Vocational Schools. They should be Leading and Model TV High
Schools
- Establish a “Generalized Technical and Vocational” Schools with
Vocational Orientation and guidance.
- General education
- Objective: Minimize total training costs
- Basic exercise and training at School
- Intensive training at the Workplace with Government’s financial
support.
- 2 + 1 system (two years school education and one years practice
in the workplace
- “General TV Schools” provide the flexibility maintaing the
balance between General and TV Schools.
43
2007-10-26
VI .The relevance of TVE at Upper secondary
education
(2) Vertical Upgrading: Relocating the Core TVE
function from Upper Sec Ed to “Junior Technical Colleges”
(Polytechnic Institute)
(3) Making the relationship “closer” between TVE
and Work places (Industry) to upgrade the relevance.
- demand orientation in Governance, Program, teacher
recruitment, and evaluation.
- Government’s support to “the development of
cooperative relation between school and Industry
- implementation of the “customized programs”
44
2007-10-26
VI .The relevance of TVE at Upper secondary
education
 Development of institutional infrastructure to
support TVE.
- Developing the system of Qualification and License
- Job-Information system (Work-net)
- Expanding the opportunity to acquire
qualifications and Licenses.
 Development of Life-long Learning system for Job
Competency.
- National agenda for HRD
45
2007-10-26