Transcript DAVID RICARDO

DAVID RICARDO
1772-1823
Surse:
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WWW. Rostow, Theorists of Economic Growth from David Hume to the Present. With a Perspective on the Next Century, New York, Oxford,
Oxford University Press, 1990
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David Ricardo, On Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, 1817 (third edition 1821), Batoche Books, Kitchnener, Ontario, Canada, 2001
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Campbell R. McConnell, Brue Stanley, Economics. Principles, Problems and Policies, thirteenth edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1996
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Samuelson P, Nordhaus W, Economics, fourteenth edition, McGraw-Hill, 1992
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Manoilescu M, Forţele naţionale productive şi comerţul exterior. Teoria protecţionismului şi a schimbului internaţional, Ed. Ştiinţifică şi
Enciclopedică, Bucureşti, 1986
Componente de bază ale economiei
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Componentele forţelor de producţie: munca,
utilajul, capitalul
Componentele sociale ale producţiei: proprietarul
de pământ, proprietarul capitalului, muncitorul
Esenţa economiei devine DISTRIBUŢIA producţieiveniturilor prin rentă, profit, salariu.
Aceasta depinde de: fertilitatea solului, acumularea
capitalului, populaţie, aptitudini, ingeniozitate,
utilajul din agricultură
(Rostow, Theorists of Economic Growth from David Hume to the Present
with a Perspective on the Next Century, Oxford Univ. Press, 1990, 77)
Componente de bază ale economiei
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“«The produce of the earth—all that is derived from its surface by the
united application of labour, machinery, and capital, is divided among
three classes of the community; namely, the proprietor of
the land, the owner of the stock or capital necessary for its cultivation, and
the labourers by whose industry it is cultivated.
But in different stages of society, the proportions of the whole produce of
the earth which will be allotted to each of these classes, under the names of
rent, profit, and wages, will be essentially different; depending mainly on
the actual fertility of the soil, on the accumulation of capital and
population, and on the skill, ingenuity, and instruments employed in
agriculture.
To determine the laws which regulate this distribution, is the principal
problem in Political Economy: much as the science has been improved by the
writings of Turgot, Stuart, Smith, Say, Sismondi, and others, they afford very
little satisfactory information respecting the natural course of rent,
profit, and wages.»” (Rostow, 77)
Legea diminuării veniturilor şi rolul
agriculturii. Populaţia
Ricardo subliniază funcţia agriculturii în dezvoltarea
economică. Legea diminuării veniturilor pe măsura
creşterii investiţiilor
“The operation of diminishing returns in a long-settled
and developed country can only be held off by
improved agricultural technology or increased
agricultural imports at prices cheaper than the cost
of growing grain at home.” / necesitatea liberului
schimb [prin avantaj comparativ]
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Legea diminuării veniturilor. Ciclul
economisire-investiţii
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Legea diminuării veniturilor este esenţială în mecanismul
economic şi ea îşi are punctul de plecare în agricultură:
“Ricardo assumed that all saving was invested. Savinginvestment, in turn was assumed to depend on two
factors. First, profits; i.e., “net income” above the
allocation of resources necessary to maintain labor at
its subsistence level. Second, on the impulse to save that
Ricardo assumed would vary with the expected rate of
profit. Low profits combined with the inescapable risks
of investment would induce the capitalist or landowner
to expand his consumption rather than increase his
savings. Diminishing returns in agriculture decree that
ultimately profits will decline … (Rostow: 81)
Legea diminuării veniturilor-profiturilor
(2)
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“The natural tendency of profits then is to fall; for in
the progress of society and wealth, the additional
quantity of food required is obtained by the
sacrifice of more and more labour; this gravitation
as it were of profits is happily checked at repeated
intervals by the improvements in machinery,
connected with the production of necessaries, as
well as by discoveries in the science of agriculture
which enable us to relinquish a portion of labour
before required, and therefore to lower the price
of the prime necessary of the labourer.”
(Ricardo: 78-79)
CONCEPTE FUNDAMENTALE
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În concepţia lui Ricardo, următoarele concepte sunt
definitorii pentru economia politică:
VALOAREA, RENTA, PREŢUL, SALARIUL, CAPITALUL,
PROFITUL, IMPOZITAREA, COMERŢUL
INTERNAŢIONAL
VALOAREA
Valoarea reprezintă echivalentul de schimb al
unui produs în alt produs şi este dată de
cantitatea de muncă încorporată.
“The value of a commodity, or the quantity of any
other commodity for which it will exchange,
depends on the relative quantity of labour which is
necessary for its production, and not on the greater
or less compensation which is paid for that
labour.“
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(Ricardo, Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, Batoche Books, Ontario, (1817) 2001, 8)
Valoarea: de schimb şi socială
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“It has been observed by Adam Smith, that 'the word Value has
two
different meanings, and sometimes expresses the
utility of some particular object, and sometimes the power of
purchasing other goods which the possession of that object
conveys. The one may be called value in use; the other value in
exchange. The things,' he continues, 'which have the greatest value in
use, have frequently little or no value in exchange; and, on the
contrary, those which have the greatest value in exchange, have little
or no value in use; Water and air are abundantly useful; they are
indeed indispensable to existence, yet, under ordinary circumstances,
nothing can be obtained in exchange for them. Gold, on the
contrary, though of little use compared with air or water, will
exchange for a great quantity of other goods.”
Valoarea: conceptul de utilitate
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Utility then is not the measure of exchangeable value, although it is
absolutely essential to it . If a commodity were in no way useful, — in
other words, if it could in no way contribute to our gratification, — it
would be destitute of exchangeable value, however scarce it might be, or
whatever quantity of labour might be necessary to procure it.
Possessing utility, commodities derive their exchangeable value from two
sources: from their scarcity, and from the quantity of labour required to
obtain them.” (Ricardo: 8)
Înseamnă că utilitatea se referă la valoarea socială-de folosinţă.
Foarte curios cum a evoluat în literatura neoliberală contemporană: „In a word,
utility denotes satisfaction. More precisely, it refers to the subjective pleasure or
usefulness that a person derives from consuming a good or service.” (Samuelson,
Economics, 1992, p.83)
PROFITUL
DEF:
... profits; i.e., “net income” above the allocation of
resources necessary to maintain labor at its
subsistence level
Profitul este funcţie a salariului şi a rentei:
“... in all countries, and all times profits depend on the
quantity of labour requisite to provide necessaries
for the labourers, on that land or with that capital
which yields no rent.” (ibid)
(Rostow: 81)
Legea urmăririi naturale a creşterii
profitului
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“Without a motive there could be no accumulation,
and consequently such a state of prices never could
take place. The farmer and manufacturer can no
more live without profit, than the labourer without
wages. Their motive for accumulation will diminish
with every diminution of profit, and will cease
altogether when their profits are so low as not to
afford them an adequate compensation for their
trouble, and the risk which they must necessarily
encounter in employing their capital productively.”
(Ricardo: 80)
SALARIUL
Salariul este preţul muncii:
“Labour, like all other things which are purchased and
sold, and which may be increased or diminished in
quantity, has its natural and its market price.”
 Salariul depinde de:
 “1st. The supply and demand of labourers.
 2dly. The price of the commodities on which the
wages of labour are expended.”
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(Ricardo, 58)
(Ricardo, 61)
Teoria salariului natural
Avem două tipuri de salariu: “salariul natural” şi
“salariul negociat” (sau “de piaţă”) – market
wage
DEF salariul natural:
 “…the natural price of labour, estimated even in
food and necessaries, . . . varies at different times in
the same country, and very materially differs in
different countries. It essentially depends on the
habits and customs of the people.”
(Rostow: 80)
Salariul de piaţă
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“The market price of labour is the price which is
really paid for it, from the natural operation of the
proportion of the supply and demand; labour is
dear when it is scarce, and cheap when it is
plentiful. However much the market price of labour
may deviate from its natural price, it has, like
commodities, a tendency to conform to it.”
Salariul şi populaţia. Dezvoltarea
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Avem dezvoltare atunci când salariul de piaţă
este peste salariul natural.
“… the rate of population increase is a function of
the difference between the market and natural rate
of wages; that a market rate above the natural
rate discourages investment, reduces thereby the
demand for labor, and thus tends to bring the
market wage rate back to the natural wage rate.”
(Rostow: 79)
Salariul şi dezvoltarea (2)
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“Notwithstanding the tendency of wages to conform
to their natural rate, their market rate may, in an
improving society, for an indefinite period, be
constantly above it; … and thus, if the increase of
capital be gradual and constant, the demand for
labour may give a continued stimulus to an increase
of people.”
(Ricardo, 59)
RENTA
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“Rent is that portion of the produce of the earth, which
is paid to the landlord for the use of the original and
indestructible powers of the soil. [este parte a profitului
care, dacă este impozitată, scade gradul de cultivare
al pământului pentru că afectează profitul – cf. p.121
– cap. 10 „Taxes on Rent”] It is often, however,
confounded with the interest and profit of capital, and,
in popular language, the term is applied to whatever is
annually paid by a farmer to his landlord.” (Ricardo: 39)
“... rent being not a creation, but merely a transfer of
wealth”
(Ricardo: 139)
IMPOZITELE
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Impozitul este o funcţie esenţială a guvernării, este suportul fiscal al administraţiei.
Principiile impozitării Ricardo le preia de la Adam Smith, după cum chiar el
mărturiseşte:
„ ... according to Adam Smith, all taxes should conform [to the] four maxims … as
follows:
1. «The subjects of every state ought to contribute towards the support of the
government, as nearly as possible in proportion to their respective abilities.
2. The tax which each individual is bound to pay ought to be certain and not –
p.128 arbitrary.
3. 'Every tax ought to be levied at the time, or in the manner in which it is most likely
to be convenient for the contributor to pay it.
4. 'Every tax ought to be so contrived as both to take out and to keep out of the
pockets of the people as little as possible, over and above what it brings into the
public treasury of the State.'»
Impozitarea (2)
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Acest ultim aspect se referă la evitarea situaţiei în care „there is a large
difference between the revenue to the government (net of administration
expenses) and the total outlay by the taxpayer”. [Ian T. Lambert, “Some
modern Principles of Taxation – Adam Smith Revisited”
RISCUL IMPOZITĂRII NEPRODUCTIVE – GUVERNAREA SLABĂ:
“If the consumption of the government, when increased by the levy of
additional taxes, be met either by an increased production, or by
a
diminished consumption on the part of the people, the taxes
will fall upon revenue, and the national capital will remain
unimpaired; but if there be no increased production or diminished
unproductive consumption on the part of the people, the taxes will
necessarily fall on capital, that is to say, they will impair the fund allotted to
productive consumption.” (Ricardo: 104)
Valoare şi Bogăţie (bogăţia naţiunilor)
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Problema:
“By constantly increasing the facility of production, we constantly diminish the
value of some of the commodities before produced, though by the same
means we not only add to the national riches, but also to the power of
future production. Many of the errors in political economy have arisen from
errors on this subject, from considering an increase of riches, and an
increase of value, as meaning the same thing, and from unfounded notions
as to what constituted a standard measure of value.” (Ricardo, 199)
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Bogăţia:
“...for wealth always depends on the quantity of commodities produced,
without any regard to the facility with which the instruments employed in
production may have been procured.” (Ricardo, 202)
“'necessaries, conveniences, and amusements/ in one state of society” (idem, 198)
Valoarea şi Bogăţia. Ţări bogate, ţări sărace
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“It may be said, then, of two countries possessing
precisely the same quantity of all the necessaries
and comforts of life, that they are equally rich, but
the value of their respective riches would depend
on the comparative facility or difficulty with which
they were produced.”
(Ricardo, 201)
COMERŢUL INTERNAŢIONAL – teoria
avantajului comparativ
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Premisa: schimbul este mijlocul prin care toate ţările
pot avea beneficii atât timp cât prin intermediul
acestuia, îşi echilibrează costurile. Cea mai
importantă componentă a costurilor este cantitatea
de muncă.
Schimbul internaţional este avantajos în măsura în
care ţările participante îşi optimizează cantităţile de
muncă.
Teoria avantajului comparativ exemplu
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“England may be so circumstanced, that to produce the cloth may require
the labour of 100 men for one year; and if she attempted to make the
wine, it might require the labour of 120 men for the same time. England
would therefore find it her interest to import wine, and to purchase it by the
exportation of cloth.
To produce the wine in Portugal, might require only the labour of 80 men
for one year, and to produce the cloth in the same country, might require
the labour of 90 men for the same time. It would therefore be
advantageous for her to export wine in exchange for cloth. This exchange
might even take place, notwithstanding that the commodity imported by
Portugal could be produced there with less labour than in England.”
Teoria avantajului comparativ 2
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“Of these two countries, if one had the advantage
in the manufacture of goods of one quality, and the
other in the manufacture of goods of another
quality, there would be no decided influx of the
precious metals into either; but if the advantage
very heavily preponderated in favour of either, that
effect would be inevitable.” (Ricardo, 97)
Teoria avantajului comparativ (concepția neoliberală)
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“Specialization and trade increase the productivity of a
nation’s resources and allow for larger total output than
otherwise”.
A nation has a comparative advantage in some product
when it can produce that product at a lower domestic
opportunity cost than can a potential trading partner.”
(Campbell, 103)
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(Campbell, 105)

“The amount of other products which must be foregone or
sacrificed to obtain some amount of a specific product is
called the opportunity cost of that good.”
(Campbell, 26)