Aldehydes and Ketones - University of Nebraska Omaha
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Transcript Aldehydes and Ketones - University of Nebraska Omaha
Aldehydes and Ketones
Structure of Aldehydes and Ketones
• Both aldehydes and ketones have a carbonyl
group, a carbon atom doubly bonded to an
oxygen atom, C=O.
• Aldehydes have a carbonyl group bonded to
an H atom.
• Ketones have a carbonyl group bonded to two
carbon atoms.
• In this and several following chapters, we study
the physical and chemical properties of classes
of compounds containing the carbonyl group,
C=O.
• aldehydes and ketones (Chapter 12)
• carboxylic acids (Chapter 13)
• acid halides, acid anhydrides, esters, and amides
(Chapter 14)
Nomenclature of Aldehydes and Ketones
• IUPAC nomenclature
• The parent chain is the longest chain that contains
the carbonyl group.
• For an aldehyde, change the suffix from –e to –al; for
a ketone change the suffix from –e to –one
• For an unsaturated aldehyde or ketone, show the
carbon-carbon double bond by changing the infix from
–an– to –en–; the location of the suffix determines the
numbering pattern.
• For a cyclic molecule in which –CHO is bonded to the
ring, add the suffix –carbaldehyde.
• Some aromatic aldehydes and ketones have reserved
names. (We need to know benzaldehyde,
acetophenone, benzophenone.)
Some examples
Precedence of Functional Groups
• When a molecule has several functional groups,
which functional group uses a suffix and which
functional group uses a prefix follows a preset
order of precedence (priority).
• Precedence in decreasing order (highest on top)
(lower precedence prefix in parenthesis)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
carboxylic acid
aldehyde (oxo-)
ketone (oxo-)
alcohol (hydroxy-)
thiol (mercapto-) [book has thiol and amine backwards]
amine (amino-)
alkene/alkyne (alkenyl/alkynyl)
• Use prefixes to name functional group with lower
precedence.
• Common names
• For aldehydes, the common name is derived from the
common name of the corresponding carboxylic acid.
• Know formaldehyde and acetaldehyde.
• For ketones, name the alkyl or aryl groups bonded to
the carbonyl carbon and add the word ketone.
• Order branches according to molecular weight.
• Know acetone.
Physical Properties of Aldehydes and Ketones
• Oxygen is more electronegative than carbon (3.5
versus 2.5); and therefore, a C=O group is polar.
• Aldehydes and ketones are polar compounds and interact
in the pure state by dipole-dipole interactions.
• They have higher boiling points and are more soluble in
water than nonpolar compounds of comparable molecular
weight.
• In liquid aldehydes and ketones, there are
moderate intermolecular attractions between
the carbon pole (+) of one molecule and the
oxygen pole (-) of another molecule.
• Hydrogen bonding is not possible between (purely)
aldehyde or ketone molecules.
• Aldehydes and ketones have lower boiling points than
alcohols and carboxylic acids, compounds in which
hydrogen bonding between molecules is possible.
• Formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, and acetone are
infinitely soluble in water.
• Aldehydes and ketones become less soluble in
water as the hydrocarbon portion of the molecule
increases in size.
Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones
• Nucleophilic addition to bond, AN
• Grignard reactions (adding carbanion to carbonyl group)
• Imine formation
• Acetal and hemi-acetal formation
• Keto-enol tautomerism
• Racemization at an -carbon
• Oxidation
• Chromic acid oxidation of aldehydes
• Nitric acid oxidation of ketones
• Tollens test
• Reduction
• Catalytic reduction
• Metal hydride reduction
• Reductive amination
AN Reactions with Aldehydes and Ketones
• When a nucleophile adds to a carbonyl group (the
electrophile), the resulting tetrahedral carbonyl
addition intermediate (TCAI) has several different
possible mechanistic routes.
• These mechanistic routes are usually determined
by how many electronegative atoms are attached
to the tetrahedral carbon.
AN Reactions Organized by Nucleophile
1. Very strong nucleophiles in very basic medium:
addition of hydrides (reduction) and carbanions.
•
•
AN occurs first, then proton transfer (PT) occurs as a
separate step.
Grignard reactions, metal hydride reductions
2. Moderate nucleophiles/bases: addition of nitrogen
and cyanide nucleophiles.
•
•
AN and PT occur very close in time.
Imine formation
3. Weak nucleophiles/bases: addition of water and
alcohols.
•
•
PT occurs first, then AN
Hemiacetal and acetal formation
Grignard Reagents
• Addition of carbon nucleophiles (carbanions) is
one of the most important types of nucleophilic
additions to a C=O group.
• A new carbon-carbon bond is formed in the process.
• Carbanions can be formed using Grignard
reagents.
Victor Grignard was awarded the Nobel Prize for
chemistry in 1912 for their discovery and application to
organic synthesis.
Grignard reagents have the general formula RMgX,
where R is an alkyl or aryl group and X is a halogen.
• Grignard reagents are prepared by adding an
alkyl or aryl halide to a suspension of Mg metal
in diethyl ether.
• Given the difference in electronegativity between
carbon and magnesium (2.5 – 1.3), the C-Mg
bond is polar covalent, with C– and Mg+.
• In its reactions, a Grignard reagent behaves as a
carbanion.
• Carbanion: An anion in which carbon has an
unshared pair of electrons and bears a negative
charge.
• A carbanion is an excellent nucleophile and adds
readily to the carbonyl group of aldehydes and ketones.
• Reaction with protic acids
• Grignard reagents are very strong bases and react
with Brønsted-Lowry acids to form alkanes.
• Any compound containing an O-H, N-H, or S-H group
reacts with a Grignard reagent by proton transfer.
• Initially, this proton transfer is undesirable.
• One can’t use water, alcohols or amines as solvents.
• Reaction of a Grignard reagent with a carbonyl
group yields an alcohol.
• Reaction with formaldehyde gives a 1° alcohol.
• Reaction with any aldehyde other than formaldehyde
gives a 2° alcohol.
• Reaction with a ketone gives a 3° alcohol.
• Reactions with Grignard reagents are done in
diethyl ether or THF.
• Once the addition to carbonyl group is done, the
reaction is completed by adding water to do a final
proton transfer (and remove the magnesium
halide ion).
Imines
• Imine: A compound containing a C=N bond;
also called a Schiff base.
• Formed by the reaction of an aldehyde or ketone with
ammonia or a 1° amine and catalyzed with acid.
• Schiff bases are important as intermediates in the
synthesis and metabolism of amino acids.
Addition of Alcohols
• Hemiacetal: A molecule containing an –OH
group and an -OR group bonded to the same
carbon.
• Hemiacetals are minor components of an equilibrium
mixture except where a 5- or 6-membered ring can
form.
• Acetal: A molecule containing two –OR groups
bonded to the same carbon.
• Cyclic hemiacetals are very important in
understanding the structure of sugars like glucose
and fructose.
Mechanism of Acid-Catalyzed
Hemiacetal Formation
Step 1. Add a proton: Proton transfer from HA
to the carbonyl oxygen.
H
Cl
H
O
O
H3C
C
H3C
CH3
C
CH3
H3C
Step 2. Oxygen on alcohol does nucleophilic
attack on carbonyl carbon.
O
H3C
C
H
O
H
CH3
H2
C
H3C
CH3
H
O
H
C
CH3
O
H2
C
CH3
O
H
C
CH3
Step 3. Deprotonation of the oxonium ion yields
the hemiacetal.
H3C
H
O
H
C
CH3
O
H2
C
H3C
CH3
O
H
C
CH3
O
H2
C
CH3
• Hemiacetal and acetal formation can be
catalyzed with base (OH-) as well.
• Note that this reaction with the weak
nucleophile, ethanol, (PT) occurred first,
then AN.
Mechanism for Acid-catalyzed Conversion of
Hemiacetal to Acetal
Step 1. Add a proton: Proton transfer from HA
to the hemiacetal oxygen.
Step 2. Break a bond to give a stabilized ion.
(Leaving group is water.)
Step 3. Reaction of an electrophile with a
nucleophile to form a new covalent bond.
Step 4. Deprotonation: Proton transfer to A–
gives the acetal and regenerates the
acid catalyst.
• The formation of acetals is an equilibrium
reaction and is reversible.
• To form an acetal, experimental conditions are
used that remove water as it is formed (such as
high heat), thus driving the equilibrium reaction
toward acetal formation.
• By manipulating the equilibrium (using a large
excess of water), an acetal can be converted
back to the original aldehyde or ketone.
Acetals as a Carbonyl-Protecting Group
• One way to synthesize the hydroxyaldehyde on
the right is by a Grignard reaction.
• But the aldehyde of the bromoaldehyde must be
protected; often by converting it to a cyclic acetal.
(or else the Grignard reagent will react with the other end
of the molecule)
• Now magnesium and ether are added to make
the Grignard reagent.
O
O
Br
O
A cyclic acetal
BrMg
+ Mg
eth er
O
A Grign ard reagent
• And the Grignard reagent reacts with the
benzaldehyde.
O
-
H + BrMg
Ph
O MgBr
O
+
O
O
Ph
A magnesium alkoxide
O
• Proton transfer completes the alcohol synthesis
and excess water undoes the cyclic acetal.
-
+
O MgBr
Ph
OH
O
O
HCl, H2 O
Ph
O
H + HO
OH
Keto-Enol Tautomerism
• Enol: A molecule containing an -OH group
bonded to a carbon of a carbon-carbon double
bond
• The keto form
predominates at
equilibrium for most
simple aldehydes and
ketones.
• Interconversion of keto and enol forms is
catalyzed by both acid and base.
• Mechanism for acid catalysis
Step 1. Add a proton to the carbonyl oxygen.
Step 2 Take a proton away from the -carbon to A-.
Racemization at an -Carbon
• When an enantiomerically pure aldehyde or
ketone with at least one -hydrogen is treated
with a trace of acid or base, it gradually
becomes a racemic mixture; it loses all optical
activity.
• Racemization occurs because of the formation
of the achiral enol that is intermediate between
the two enantiomers.
Oxidation
• Aldehydes are one of the most easily oxidized of
all functional groups.
• Ketones are not normally oxidized by H2CrO4.
• Instead, chromic acid is used to oxidize 2°
alcohols to ketones.
• They are oxidized by HNO3 at higher temperatures.
• Oxidation is via the enol and a multi-step mechanism.
• Adipic acid is one of the starting materials for the synthesis
of nylon 66.
Silver Mirror Test for Aldehydes
• Tollens’ reagent: Prepared by adding NaOH to
AgNO3 (aq) to precipitate Ag2O, then adding
ammonia to form the silver-ammonia complex ion.
• Tollens’ reagent is specific for the oxidation of
aldehydes. If silver deposits on the walls of the
container as a silver mirror when Tollens’ reagent
is mixed with an unknown substance, the
substance must be an aldehyde.
Reduction
• Aldehydes are reduced to 1° alcohols.
• Ketones are reduced to 2° alcohols.
• Reductions are done in two ways.
• Catalytic Hydrogenation
• Reaction with Metal Hydrides
Catalytic Reduction
• Catalytic reductions are generally carried out at
from 25°C to 100°C and 1 atm to 5 atm of H2.
• A carbon-carbon
double bond may
also be reduced
under these
conditions.
Metal Hydride Reductions
• Reductions that are more specific than catalytic
reduction involve metal hydrides.
• The most common metal hydrides that are used
for the reduction of aldehydes and ketones are
NaBH4 and LiAlH4.
• Both reagents are sources of hydride ion, H:–, a very
strong nucleophile.
• Reductions with NaBH4 are most commonly
carried out in aqueous methanol, in pure
methanol, or in ethanol.
• One mole of NaBH4 reduces four moles of
aldehyde or ketone.
• The key step in metal hydride reductions is
transfer of a hydride ion (a nucleophile) to the
C=O group (an electrophile) to form the new
covalent bond of a tetrahedral carbonyl
addition compound.
• Metal hydride reducing agents do not
normally reduce carbon-carbon double bonds,
and selective reduction of either C=O or C=C
is often possible.
• If reduction of the carbon-carbon double
bonds is desired instead, the carbonyl group
can be “protected” by forming a cyclic acetal.
Reductive Amination
• Reductive amination: The formation of an
imine followed by its reduction to an amine.
• Reductive amination is a valuable method for the
conversion of ammonia to a 1° amine, and conversion
of a 1° amine to a 2° amine.