Transcript Slide 1
Wind Engineering Module 7.2: Power Quality Issues Lakshmi N. Sankar [email protected] Electromagnetism http://www.windpower.org/en/stat/emag/emagn.htm Electromagnetism • The current magnetizes the iron core and creates a pair of magnetic poles, one North, and the other South. • The two compass needles consequently point in opposite directions. Induction • • • • • The light bulb flashes the moment you connect the switch to the battery. The explanation is, that the magnetic field coming from the upper electromagnet flows through the lower iron core. The change in that magnetic field, in turn induces an electric current in the lower coil. The current in the lower coil ceases once the magnetic field has stabilized. If you switch off the current , you get another flash, because the magnetic field disappears. The change in the field induces another current in the lower core, and makes the light bulb flash again. Simple AC Generator Source: http://www.tpub.com/content/doe/h1011v3/css/h1011v3_111.htm Simple AC Generator • In this type of generator, a DC source is supplied to the rotating field coils. • This produces a magnetic field around the rotating element. • As the rotor is turned by the prime mover, the magnetic field will cut the conductors of the stationary armature, and an EMF will be induced into the armature windings. Alternating Current • With an alternating current in the electrical grid, the current changes direction very rapidly, as illustrated on the graph above. • Ordinary household current in most of the world is 230 Volts alternating current with 50 cycles per second = 50 Hz – "Hertz" named after the German Physicist H.R. Hertz (1857-1894). • The number of cycles per second is also called the frequency of the grid. • In USA household current is 130 volts with 60 cycles per second (60 Hz). Phase Angle http://www.windpower.org/en/stat/unitsac.htm • Since the voltage in an alternating current system varies with time one cannot connect a generator safely to the grid, unless the current from the generator oscillates with exactly the same frequency, and is exactly "in step" with the grid, – i.e. that the timing of the voltage cycles from the generator coincides exactly with those of the grid. – Being "in step" with the grid is normally called being in phase with the grid. • If the currents are not in phase, there will be a huge power surge which will result in huge sparks, and ultimately damage to the circuit breaker (the switch), and/or the generator. • In other words, connecting two live AC lines is a bit like jumping onto a moving seesaw. – If you do not have exactly the same speed and direction as the seesaw, both you and the people on the seesaw are likely to get hurt. Three-Phase AC Generators • The principles of a three-phase generator are basically the same as that of a single-phase generator. • There are three equally-spaced windings and three output voltages. • These are all 120° out of phase with one another. Stationary Armature 3 Phase Generator Power Quality • The term "power quality" refers to the voltage stability, frequency stability, and the absence of various forms of electrical noise (e.g. flicker or harmonic distortion) on the electrical grid. • More broadly speaking, power companies (and their customers) prefer an alternating current with a nice sinusoidal shape. Starting and Stopping • Most electronic wind turbine controllers are programmed to let the turbine run idle without grid connection at low wind speeds. • If it were connected to the grid at low wind speeds, energy will flow from the grid to the turbine and it would run as a motor. – The motor may over-speed and be damaged. – There are several safety devices, including fail-safe brakes, in case the correct start procedure fails. • Once the wind becomes powerful enough to turn the rotor and generator at their rated speed, the turbine generator becomes connected to the electrical grid at the right moment. – This is done using electrical controllers. Effects of Sudden Starts • If you switched a large wind turbine on to the grid with a normal switch, the neighbors would initially see a brownout – This is because of the current required to magnetize the generator. • This is followed by a power peak due to the generator current surging into the grid. • Another unpleasant side effect of using a "hard" switch would be to put a lot of extra wear on the gearbox, since the cut-in of the generator would work as if you all of a sudden slammed on the mechanical brake of the turbine. Soft Starting with Thyristors • To prevent this situation, modern wind turbines are soft starting. • They connect and disconnect gradually to the grid using thyristors, a type of semiconductor continuous switches which may be controlled electronically. – You may in fact have a thyristor in your own home, if you own a modern light dimmer, where you can adjust the voltage on your lamps continuously. • Thyristors waste about 1 to 2 per cent of the energy running through them. • Modern wind turbines are therefore normally equipped with a so called bypass switch, i.e. a mechanical switch • This is activated after the turbine has been soft started, and the thyristor is bypassed. Power Quality issues: Weak Grids • If a turbine is connected to a weak electrical grid, (i.e. it is vary far away in a remote corner of the electrical grid with a low power-carrying ability), there may be some brownout / power surge problems of the sort mentioned above. • In such cases it may be necessary to reinforce the grid, in order to carry the fluctuating current from the wind turbine. • Local power companies have experience in dealing with these potential problems, because they are the exact mirror-image of connecting a large electricity user, (e.g. a factory with large electrical motors) to the grid. Power Quality Issues: Flicker • Flicker is an engineering expression for short lived voltage variations in the electrical grid which may cause light bulbs to flicker. • This phenomenon may be occur if a wind turbine is connected to a weak grid, since short-lived wind variations will cause variations in power output. • There are various ways of dealing with this issue in the design of the turbine: – mechanically, electrically, and using power electronics Power Quality issues: Islanding • • • • • • Islanding is a situation which may occur if a section of the electrical grid becomes disconnected from the main electrical grid, e.g. because of accidental or intended tripping of a large circuit breaker in the grid (e.g. due to lightning strikes or short circuits in the grid). If wind turbines keep on running in the isolated part of the grid, then it is very likely that the two separate grids will not be in phase after a short while. Once the connection to the main grid is re-established it may cause huge current surges in the grid and the wind turbine generator. It would also cause a large release of energy in the mechanical drive train (i.e. the shafts, the gear box and the rotor of the wind turbine) much like "hard switching" the turbine generator onto the grid would do. The electronic controller of the wind turbine will therefore constantly have to monitor the voltage and frequency of the alternating current in the grid. In case the voltage or frequency of the local grid drift outside certain limits within a fraction of a second, the turbine will automatically disconnect from the grid, and stop itself immediately afterwards. – Normally by activating the aerodynamic brakes Current Approaches for Improving Power Quality • Field Data – http://www.nrel.gov/wind/pdfs/39477.pdf • Modeling – http://www.nrel.gov/wind/pdfs/39510.pdf – http://www.nrel.gov/wind/pdfs/40851.pdf Sample Field Data http://www.nrel.gov/wind/pdfs/39477.pdf Conclusions based on NREL Studies http://www.nrel.gov/wind/pdfs/39870.pdf • From the power fluctuation perspective, the larger the area of the wind farm the more diverse the wind profile that drives each turbine. Thus, there is a greater chance that the fluctuation in one turbine will be out of phase with another on the other side of the wind farm. • NREL studies show that the more groups used to represent a wind farm, the smaller the fluctuation. The same conclusion can be drawn that a wind farm with more small turbines creates fewer power/voltage fluctuations on the power grid than a few large turbines. • As the number of turbines in a wind farm increases over a large area, the characteristics of the wind farm are masked by the collective impact. Thus the impact of tower shadow and wind turbulence on the wind farm will be leveled out. Conclusions based on Field Data http://www.nrel.gov/wind/pdfs/39477.pdf • • • • The generating rating of the Blue Canyon Wind Power Project is about 6% of WFEC’s peak load, and during light load periods it may approach 14% of the load. At such levels, the data show that on average the fluctuations of wind power only increase the short-time frame variability of system apparent load by 8%. For a longer-time frame, the increase in system apparent load variability is even less. The available data show that wind generation has less impact on system regulation requirements than system load. Field data Conclusions (Continued) http://www.nrel.gov/wind/pdfs/39477.pdf • The uncertainty of wind power availability complicates the dayahead resources scheduling and hour-ahead adjustment processes. • Better wind power forecasting can help improve the system performance. – Improve how system operators will incorporate the information into scheduling and operating decision processes.