Santrock Chapter 3
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Transcript Santrock Chapter 3
Life-Span Development
Twelfth Edition
C H A P T E R 3 : P R E N ATA L
D E V E L O P M E N T A N D B I RT H
©2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Prenatal Development
Conception occurs when a single sperm cell from the
male unites with an ovum (egg)
Prenatal development is divided into 3 periods and lasts
approximately 266-280 days:
Germinal period: first 2 weeks after conception, zygote created
Embryonic period: occurs from 2 to 8 weeks after conception
Fetal period: begins 2 months after conception and lasts until
birth
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Prenatal Development
Germinal Period: period of development that
takes place the first two weeks after conception
Rapid
cell division by the zygote
Blastocyst: group of cells after about 1 week
Trophoblast: outer layer of cells that later provides
nutrition and support for the embryo
Implantation: attachment of the zygote to the uterine
wall; occurs 10 to 14 days after conception
©2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Prenatal Development
©2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Prenatal Development
Embryonic Period: development from 2 to 8 weeks
after conception
Begins
when blastocyst attaches to uterine wall
Mass of cells is now called an embryo
Three layers of cells: endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm
Amnion: a bag that contains a clear fluid (amniotic fluid)
in which the embryo floats
Umbilical Cord: connects the baby to the placenta
Placenta: group of tissues containing mother and baby’s
intertwined blood vessels
Organogenesis: process of organ formation during the first
two months of prenatal development
©2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Prenatal Development
©2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Prenatal Development
Fetal Period: development from two months after
conception to birth
Rapid
growth and change
Viability: the age at which a fetus has a chance of
surviving outside the womb
Currently
24 weeks; changes with advances in medical
technology
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Prenatal Development
The Brain:
Babies
have approximately 100 billion neurons (nerve
cells) at birth
Architecture
of the brain takes shape during the first two
trimesters
Increases in connectivity and functioning occur from the
third trimester to 2 years of age
Neural
tube develops 18 to 24 days after conception
Anencephaly
Spina
bifida
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Prenatal Development
The Brain:
Neurogenesis:
the generation of new neurons
Begins
at fifth prenatal week and continues throughout
prenatal period
Neuronal
migration: cells move outward from their
point of origin to their appropriate locations
Occurs
approximately 6 to 24 weeks after conception
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Hazards to Prenatal Development
Teratogen: any agent that can cause a birth defect or
negatively alter cognitive and behavioral outcomes
Drugs
(prescription, nonprescription)
Incompatible blood types
Environmental pollutants
Infectious diseases
Nutritional deficiencies
Maternal stress
Advanced age of parent
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Hazards to Prenatal Development
Severity of damage to the unborn depends on:
Dose
Genetic
susceptibility
Time of exposure
Critical
period: a fixed time period during which certain
experiences or events can have a long-lasting effect on
development
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Hazards to Prenatal Development
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Hazards to Prenatal Development
Prescription and Non-prescription Drugs:
Many
women are given drugs while pregnant
Some
are safe; some can cause devastating birth defects
Known
prescription teratogens include antibiotics,
some antidepressants, some hormones, and Accutane
Non-prescription teratogens include aspirin and diet
pills
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Hazards to Prenatal Development
Psychoactive Drugs: drugs that act on the nervous
system to alter states of consciousness, modify
perceptions, and change moods
Includes
caffeine, alcohol, nicotine
Caffeine:
small risk of miscarriage and low birth weight for those
consuming more than 150 mg. daily
Increased risk of fetal death for those consuming more
than 300 mg. daily
FDA recommends not consuming caffeine or consuming it
sparingly
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Hazards to Prenatal Development
Alcohol:
Fetal
alcohol syndrome: abnormalities in newborn due to
mother’s heavy use of alcohol in pregnancy
Facial
deformities
Defective limbs, face, heart
Most have below-average intelligence; some are mentally retarded
Even
light to moderate drinking during pregnancy has
been associated with negative effects on the fetus
FDA recommends no alcohol consumption during
pregnancy
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Hazards to Prenatal Development
Nicotine:
Maternal
smoking can negatively influence prenatal
development, birth, and postnatal development
Associated with:
Preterm
births and low birth weight
Fetal and neonatal death
Respiratory problems
SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome)
ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder)
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Hazards to Prenatal Development
Illegal drugs that harm during pregnancy:
Cocaine
Methamphetamine
Marijuana
Heroin
Incompatible blood types (Rh factor)
Can
cause mother’s immune system to produce
antibodies that will attack the fetus
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Hazards to Prenatal Development
Environmental hazards:
Radiation
Environmental
pollutants and toxic wastes
Maternal Diseases:
Sexually
transmitted diseases (syphilis, genital herpes,
AIDS)
Rubella
Diabetes
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Hazards to Prenatal Development
Maternal factors:
Maternal
diet and nutrition
Maternal age
Emotional states and stress
Paternal factors:
Exposure
to teratogens
Paternal age
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Prenatal Care
Prenatal care typically includes:
Screening
for manageable conditions and treatable
diseases
Medical care
Educational, social, and nutritional services
Centering Pregnancy: relationship-centered
program
Importance of prenatal care
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Percentage of U.S. Women Using Timely
Prenatal Care: 1990 to 2004
1990
2004
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
African
Non-Latino American
White women
women
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Latino
women
The Birth Process
Three stages of birth:
Stage 1: uterine contractions begin at 15 to 20 minutes
apart and last up to 1 minute, becoming closer and more
intense with time
Causes
the cervix to stretch and open to about 10 cm
This stage lasts an average of 12 to 14 hours
2: baby’s head begins to move through dilated
cervix opening and eventually emerges from the mother’s
body
Stage
This
stage lasts approximately 45 minutes
Stage
3: umbilical cord, placenta, and other membranes
are detached and expelled (afterbirth)
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The Birth Process
Childbirth Setting and Attendants:
99% of deliveries take place in hospitals
Home delivery or freestanding birth center
Compared to doctors, midwives:
Typically
spend more time than doctors counseling and educating
patients
Provide more emotional support
Are typically present during the entire labor and delivery process
Doulas
provide continuous physical, emotional, and
educational support for mother before, during, and after
childbirth
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Methods of Childbirth
Key choices involve use of medication and when
to have a cesarean delivery
Typical pain medication:
Analgesia:
pain relief
Anesthesia: blocks sensation in an area of the body
(can also block consciousness)
Epidural
block
Oxytocics:
synthetic hormones used to stimulate
contractions
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Methods of Childbirth
Natural childbirth: aims to reduce pain by
decreasing fear and using breathing/relaxation
techniques
Prepared childbirth (Lamaze): special breathing
techniques; education about anatomy and
physiology
Basic
belief is that, when information and support are
provided, women know how to give birth
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Methods of Childbirth
Other natural techniques used to reduce pain:
Waterbirth:
giving birth in a tub of warm water
Massage
Acupuncture:
insertion of very fine needles into
specific locations in the body
Hypnosis: the induction of a psychological state of
altered attention and awareness
Music therapy: utilizes music to reduce stress and
manage pain
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Methods of Childbirth
Cesarean Delivery: the baby is removed from the
mother’s uterus through an incision made in the
abdomen
Often
used if baby is in breech position or other
complications arise
Cesareans involve a higher infection rate, longer hospital
stays, and a longer recovery time
Rate of cesarean births has increased dramatically in
recent years
Better
identification of complications
Increase in overweight and obese mothers
Extra caution by doctors to avoid lawsuits
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Transition from Fetus to Newborn
Birth process is stressful for baby
Anoxia: a condition in which the fetus has an insufficient
supply of oxygen
Baby secretes adrenaline and noradrenalin, hormones that
are secreted in stressful circumstances
Measuring neonatal health and responsiveness:
Apgar Scale: assessed at 1 minute and 5 minutes after
birth
evaluates
heart rate, body color, muscle tone, respiratory effort,
and reflex irritability
10 is highest, 3 or below indicates an emergency
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Transition from Fetus to Newborn
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Transition from Fetus to Newborn
Measuring neonatal health and responsiveness:
Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale
(NBAS):
Typically
performed within 24–36 hours after birth
Assesses newborn’s neurological development, reflexes, and
reactions to people and objects
Low scores can indicate brain damage or other difficulties
Neonatal
Intensive Care Unit Network Neurobehavioral
Scale (NNNS):
Provides
a more comprehensive analysis of newborn’s behavior,
neurological and stress responses, and regulatory capacities
Assesses the “at-risk” infant
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Preterm and Low Birth Weight Infants
Preterm and Small-for-Date Infants:
Low birth weight infants weigh less than 5 ½ lbs. at birth
Preterm infants are those born three weeks or more before full
term
Small-for-date infants are those whose birth weight is below
normal when the length of the pregnancy is considered
Rate of preterm births has increased
Number of births to mothers 35 years and older
Rates of multiple births
Management of maternal and fetal conditions
Substance abuse
Stress
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Preterm and Low Birth Weight Infants
Causes of low birth weight:
Poor
health and nutrition
Cigarette smoking
Adolescent births
Use of drugs
Multiple births/reproductive technology
Improved technology and prenatal care
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Preterm and Low Birth Weight Infants
Possible consequences:
Language development delays
Lower IQ scores
Brain injury
Lung or liver diseases
More behavioral problems
Learning disabilities
ADHD
Breathing problems (asthma)
Approximately 50% are enrolled in special education
programs
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Preterm and Low Birth Weight Infants
Some effects can be improved with:
Early
speech therapy
Intensive enrichment programs
Kangaroo care, massage therapy, and breast feeding
Kangaroo
Care: treatment for preterm infants that involves
skin to skin contact
Massage: research conducted by Tiffany Field
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Preterm and Low Birth Weight Infants
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The Postpartum Period
Postpartum period lasts about six weeks or until the
mother’s body has completed its adjustment and has
returned to a nearly pre-pregnant state
Physical Adjustments:
Fatigue
Hormone
changes
Return to menstruation
Involution: process by which the uterus returns to its prepregnant size 5–6 weeks after birth
Weight loss/return to exercise
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The Postpartum Period
Emotional and Psychological Adjustments:
Emotional fluctuations are common
“Baby Blues” experienced by 70% of new mothers in the
U.S.
Typically
resolves in 1–2 weeks, without treatment
Postpartum
Excessive
Depression
sadness, anxiety, and despair that lasts for two weeks or
longer
Experienced by 10% of new mothers
Hormonal changes after birth may play a role
May affect mother–child interactions
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Postpartum blues:
symptoms appear 2 to 3
days after delivery and
subside within 1 to 2 weeks
Percentage of U.S. Women Who
Experience Postpartum Blues
and Postpartum Depression
70%
20%
No symptoms
10%
Postpartum depression: symptoms
linger for weeks or months and
interfere with daily functioning
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The Postpartum Period
A Father’s Adjustment:
Many
fathers feel that the baby gets all of the
mother’s attention
Parents should set aside time to be together
Father’s reaction is improved if he has taken
childbirth classes and is an active participant in the
baby’s care
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Bonding
Bonding: the formation of a connection, especially a
physical bond, between parents and the newborn in
the period shortly after birth
Isolation
of premature babies and use of drugs in birth
process may harm bonding process
Bonding may be a critical component in the child’s
development
However,
close contact in the first few days may not be necessary
Most
hospitals offer a rooming-in arrangement while
mother and child are in the hospital
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