Transcript A Superheroes (and villains) Guide to Ethical Theory

EVG501/502: Ethical Theory Super-lecture Plan
1. Branches of Ethical Theory
2. UTILITARIANISM and
DEONTOLOGY
3. ALTRUISM AND ETHICAL
EGOISM
4. SITUATION ETHICS and THE
ETHICS OF CARE
5. VIRTUE THEORY,
Branches of ethical theory
Utilitarianism
What is Utilitarianism? Utilitarianism declares that:
“An action is right if it produces as much or more of an increase
in happiness of all affected by it than any alternative action,
and wrong if it does not.” (Singer, P. 1999)
• It is about “utility”. What does an action accomplish, “what use is
it, what has you’re action achieved?”
• Therefore it is about (predicted!) consequences.
(consequentialism)
• It is a means/ends argument. The ends justifies the means.
In order to achieve outcome ‘x’ (most net happiness), action ‘y’ is
morally acceptable/demanded
Utilitarianism
 Jeremy Bentham (17421832) is identified as the
founder of utilitarian
thought
 His view was that ethics
is about maximizing
pleasure/happiness &
minimizing
pain/unhappiness
Utilitarianism
How do we measure happiness?
1. Utilitarianism is an egalitarian theory. Everyone’s
happiness is to be weighed equally.
Utilitarianism
How do we measure happiness?
2. It is mathematical. A cost/benefit analysis. We can
calculate future happiness.
Utilitarianism
How do we measure happiness?
3. The attainment of pleasure/the avoidance of pain
(the pleasure principle).
QUESTION: What does this mean for animal rights?
How might it be used to argue either side of the
argument?
4. Need to consider short term and long term
consequences.
Dr Aziz, from Oxford
used around 30
monkeys in tests over
20 years to find cures
for Parkinsons disease
and many believe that
as many as 40,000
people around the world
have benefitted from the
techniques
9
Utilitarianism
How do we measure happiness?
1 Intensity: How intense/strong is the pleasure and emotional
satisfaction?
2 Duration: How long will the pleasure last?
3 Certainty: How certain am I that pleasure will occur?
4 Immediacy: How soon will the pleasure occur? How near is it?
5 Fecundity: How likely is it that this experience will cause more
pleasure in the future?
6 Purity: Is there any pain that accompanies this pleasure?
7 Extent: How many people will be affected?
Problems with Utilitarianism
1. How accurately can we predict our consequences?
2. How does utilitarianism allow for justice?
eg: Race riots and false testimony
3. Are there some things that are wrong, yet have no
visibly bad consequences?
4. Only forward facing – facts about the future, not the
past. eg: promises
5. Too demanding.
6. Personal Relationships
7. Is happiness a by-product, as opposed to an end?
Deontology - Kant
 Deontology regards ‘duty’
 What type of duty? Duty to
‘respect the moral law’.
 To ‘act purely from good will’,
‘good heart’, Yalo Vinaka.
 To make the correct moral
choices, we have to understand
what our moral duties are and
what correct rules exist to
regulate those duties. When we
follow our duty, we are behaving
morally. When we fail to follow
our duty, we are behaving
immorally
A PAKISTANI HOTEL EMPLOYEE HAS WON ACCLAIM
AFTER HANDING IN OVER $50,000 (£33,000) IN CASH
THAT HAD BEEN LEFT BEHIND BY A GUEST.
ESSA KHAN, 51, DISCOVERED THE MONEY IN $100
NOTES LEFT IN THE ROOM OF A JAPANESE WORKER
AT THE SERENA HOTEL IN GILGIT.
MR KHAN, WHO EARNS ABOUT 21,000 RUPEES ($235;
£153) A MONTH, SAYS HE NEVER CONSIDERED
KEEPING THE MONEY.
HE HAS BEEN INVITED TO RECEIVE AN AWARD FROM A
STATE GOVERNOR FOR HIS HONESTY.
"MY DUTY WITH THE HOTEL AND MY FAMILY
UPBRINGING TEACHES ME NOTHING ELSE," HE
SAID.
"TIMES ARE HARD FOR EVERYONE, BUT THAT
DOESN'T MEAN WE SHOULD START STEALING
AND TAKING THINGS WHICH DO NOT BELONG TO
US.“
"I WANT PEOPLE AROUND THE WORLD TO KNOW
THAT THERE ARE MANY GOOD PEOPLE IN
PAKISTAN - EVERYBODY IS NOT A TERRORIST
HERE.“ BBC News, Karachi
12 July 2010
Deontology
 Acts are right or wrong in-themselves. Not
consequences! Must look at the motive/intention.
Immanuel Kant’s Categorical Imperative:
“Act only according to that maxim whereby you can,
at the same time, will that it should become a
universal law”
(Kant, 1785)
What does this mean?
Deontology
• What is the motive for your action? What kind of world
would we live in if everyone acted from the same
motives? Essentially, “what if everybody thought like
that!” eg: Lying to the bank for a loan.
• In order to defend action ‘y’, take action ‘not-y’ and
make it a universal law.
• As such, Murder is always wrong. eg. Axeman in the
living room. 10 Commandments
• Based on a respect for Persons. ‘Ends in themselves’.
People must be treated as an end in themselves.
The Dilemma in The Dark Knight
1) each ferry is packed with enough explosives to
kill everyone on board
2) the passengers of each ferry have been given a
radio-controlled detonator that will destroy the
other boat (the convicts can detonate the ship of
citizens, and vice versa)
3) unless one boat detonates the other by
midnight, the Joker will detonate both boats. Of
course, the Joker is monitoring the situation,
and any attempt by anyone to escape will result
in the Joker blowing up both boats.
What will they do?
The choice to a passenger on either boat looks like
this:
1) I don’t blow up the other boat, and either;
a. The other boat doesn’t blow us up, and the Joker
blows us both up at midnight; or
b. The other boat blows us up, meaning that we die but
they live.
2) I do blow up the other boat, meaning that they die
while we live.
The Dark Knight – Analysis - Utilitarianism
WHAT HAPPENS!! How do we choose
the ethically right action according to
utilitarianism?
A utilitarian would argue that it is right to
blow up the other boat. If we look at the
predicted consequences, greatest
happiness is served by at least half the
passengers surviving.
Problems?
Are consequences ever certain?
A Batman rescue? Joker betrays them?
Press the detonator at the same time!!
Is there something missing here?
The Dark Knight – Analysis - Deontology
How do we choose the ethically right action
according to deontology?
Deontology would argue that it is never right to
take another life for the motive of preserving
one’s own life. If this principle were
universalized what would be the result? Could
we in good heart wish for such an outcome? No.
We must do our moral duty and abstain from
killing.
Problem?
But surely this results in the worst possible
outcome!… or did it???
What happens when duties conflict?
Altruism
To act purely out of a concern for others, without any
thought to the self, or without any intent to receive a
personal benefit. “A good deed is its own reward.”
Key terms/ideas:
Taking others suffering as one’s own (empathy)
Evolutionary instinct (herd behaviour)
Socialisation: eg: offering a ride.
Self-sacrifice
Altruism
 To act purely
out of a
concern for
others
 Motivation to
help others or
do good
without reward
"At the end of our lives, we will not be judged by how many diplomas
we have received, how much money we have made or how many great
things we have done. We will be judged by ‘I was hungry and you gave
me food to eat. I was naked and you clothed me. I was homeless and
you took me in.’ Mother Teresa
Brave Fijian saves sailor
14/07/2010, South Pacific
 When Fanifau's ship, the MV
Scarlett Lucy, arrived on the
scene, they faced an enormous
task of rescuing the two men.
While other crew members felt
reluctant in their attempt to rescue
the survivors, brave Mr Fanifau
placed himself in great danger by
going over the side into very
rough seas to help the two
exhausted elderly survivors of the
Sumatra II.
http://www.sailblogs.com/member/
prrrfection/?xjMsgID=136774

Ethical Egoism
Ethical Egoism is a theory, in ethics, that human beings act or
should act in their own interests and desires. “Immanuel
Kant is the real villain of our age” Ayn Rand.
We should all pursue our own self-interests!
Why:
1. Altruism is demeaning. Nietzsche – we ought not deny the
self, or willingly make ourselves a slave to others.
2. It leads to a better world. Think of sports or economic
competition. We know what we ourselves want best. It leads
to self-reliance and personal responsibility.
3. Its not that different, and it’s a lot more honest about
people’s motivations. ie: simply taking a long-term view and
thinking of psychological egoism.
Ethical Egoism
“Is it still possible to have
friendship with this
understanding? Are we now  Heather Mills' former publicist is finally
opening up about working with Paul
all in a world full of strangers?
McCartney's ex-wife. And it ain't pretty.
 "Heather is a calculating, pathological
liar and the biggest b---- on the planet,"
Mills' former rep Michele Elyzabeth told
Britain's News of the World. "She not
only misled me, she misled the entire
world."
 Elyzabeth stopped working for Mills six
weeks ago when, she says, she
realized the former model was lying to
her.
Do we know what’s best for
 According to Elyzabeth, Mills leaked
us?
false stories about McCartney to the
Contradictory – The
command that you should
follow your self-interest, is
not in my self-interest!
press and bugged his phone calls
Aristotle held that women are defective
men, human beings lacking in what is
essential to the nature of man; the
ability to reason. He thought the nature
of men is to reason in ways that are
distinctively human; the nature and
function of women is to reproduce, like
other animals (Held, V. 2006:59)
Immanuel Kant (1724 – 1804) claims
that women are incapable of being fully
moral because of their reliance on
emotion rather than reason. Kant said
women were not fit to vote, that they
needed the guidance of more rational
males. Autonomy was not really for
women (MacKinnon, B. 2004).
Simone De Beauvoir (19061986)
 De Beauvoir believed that it is only tradition and social
constraints that put women in an inferior position. Many
people at that time accepted the belief that women
were born inferior. Her ideas shocked many people but
brought inspiration and hope to millions of women who
recognized their own lives in her writing
http://www.suite101.com/content/simone-de-beauvoirbrief-bio-a42274
Situation Ethics and Ethics of Care
“It is easy to see the influence of men’s experience in the
ethical theories they’ve created. Men dominate public life,
and in politics and business, one’s relations with other
people are typically impersonal and contractual. Often the
relationship is adversarial – others have interests that
conflict with our own. So we negotiate, we bargain and
make deals.
Moreover in public life our decisions may affect large
numbers of people we do not know. So we may try to
calculate, in an impersonal way, which decisions have the
best overall outcome for the most people. And what do
men’s theories emphasise? Impersonal duty, contracts, the
harmonization of competing interests, and the calculation of
costs and benefits.” (Rachels, 1999, pg173)
ETHICS OF CARE
 What is it to live an ethical life?
 Is living an ethical life really about one’s duty
(deontological ethics)?
 Is living an ethical life about bringing much utility and
happiness as possible for a great number of people
(utilitarianism)
 Is living an ethical life about maintaining excellent traits
and characteristics (virtue theory)?
care
Ethics
Anof ethics

of care starts with the importance of
relationships;
anwithethics
of care
values emotion
An ethics of care starts
the importance
of relationships
(trust, empathy, mutual concern)
“Mothering is NOT a role
but a relationship”
(Dr Nel Noddings)
-Being motivated to act out
of love and care rather
than out of duty; acting
out of duty can be
impersonal.
-This is where ethics of
care rejects deontology
theory to act out of duty!
kethry.wordpress.com/.../mother-child
Situation Ethics and an Ethics of Care
Situation ethics argues that in each situation we need to find
the “most loving” solution. Grand principles do not work in all
cases.
An Ethics of Care emphasizes the importance of personal
relationships, of love (not obligation), and being a certain type of
person:
Think of weakness in previous theories regarding:
1.Why we look after our children.
2.The principle of treating everyone equally every time.
3.Animals – why sometimes a pet, other times… Lunch!
Why might women and men have different ethical approaches?
Book of Genesis
 God called out to Abraham: “Take your only son,
Isaac, and go to the land of Moriah. There on a
mountain that I will show you, offer him as a sacrifice
to me.” Early the next morning, Abraham, with his
son, Isaac, and two servants set out on the journey to
the place God had directed him. After three days of
travel they arrived at Moriah. As Abraham and Isaac
walked along, Isaac asked his father “Father, where
is the lamb for the sacrifice? Abraham replied to his
son, “God himself will provide one”.
 When they arrived at the place God told Abraham
about, Abraham built an altar, tied up his son, and
placed him on the altar. Abraham then picked up the
knife to kill his son. But the angel of the Lord called
to Abraham, “Abraham, Abraham, don’t hurt the boy.
Now I know you have obedient reverence for God
because you have not kept back your only son from
me. I will richly bless you because you obeyed my
command.”
Abraham is commanded to do something
 that
An ethics
of care starts
the importance
of relationships namely
normally
iswithethically
forbidden,
to kill one’s child.
And out of duty to God, Abraham intends
to kill Isaac, a child whose eyes are on
Abraham in trust, love and fear.
As a father, Abraham has a duty to care
for his children. But Abraham also has a
duty to obey God’s commands.
This conflict between two duties is called
a moral dilemma.
How would a woman in this situation
feel?
Ethics of care
Dr Nel Nodding believes this
An ethics of care situation
starts with thewould
importance
beof relationships
horrendous for a
mother.
Would a woman agree to sacrifice
her child for God?
Would a woman agree to sacrifice
her child for any reason such as to
save 10 others or to benefit the
greatest good?
When Abraham acts out of
principle, out of a duty to God, his
love for his son takes a back seat to
his love and respect for God. Is it
easier for a man to do this and
harder for a woman?
Ethics of care

Virtue Theory – Ethics of Character
Virtue theory is different. Its
about moral character. The
question is not what is the right
thing to do, but what is it that
makes a person ‘good’.
Aristotle (384-322BC) talks of
‘Eudaemonia’, which is Ancient
Greek, and can translate to
‘excellence’, ‘happiness’,
‘virtue’ or perhaps best to
‘human flourishing’.
What is it is to ‘flourish’? Quite
simply, to be the best you can
possibly be. For humans,
Aristotle says this is done by
being virtuous.
Virtue Theory
As virtues must be part of our character we can not be honest one time, and
then dishonest at another. We must be consistently virtuous, and through
habitual virtuous action we then flourish.
Aristotle also spoke of how strength of character (virtue) involves finding the
proper balance between two extremes. This is called the Golden Mean (not
the Golden Rule!!)
Excess: having too much of something
Eg: Cowardice
Pessimistic
Confident
Bravery
Hopeful
Arrogant
Rashness
Over-optimistic Timidity
This is Aristotle’s principle of moderation.
Look at the next clip with Thor and The Incredible Hulk in The Avengers.
Where might a virtue be slipping to vice in the case of the Hulk?
How to apply Virtue Theory?
So how can we use virtue theory to tell us what we ought
to do?
We may take this approach:
An action is morally permissable, if and only if, it is the
action that a virtuous person would have taken in the
circumstances.
If a person X, displays the virtues, S1, S2, S3, S4… Sn in
action A, then person X is justified in performing action
A.
Weakness of Virtue Theory
Sometimes, we may find one type of virtue is not the right
virtue for the situation, and lead to the wrong action.
eg:
friendliness to a serial killer
loyalty to a someone who betrays you
patience waiting for a parcel never posted
Sometimes, virtues actually result in more harm when
applied by the wrong people:
Eg:
the brave suicide bomber
the careful thief
the confident con-man
5 Key Questions to Frame your Super-Arguments!
1. What is the ethical dilemma? What is the choice in the
case-study question?
2. What are the ethical issues being raised, what are the
possible consequences and whose interests must you
take into account?
3. What is the guiding principle provided by the ethical
theory you will be applying to the case-study?
Weighing happiness, obeying the moral law or being
virtuous?
4. How does this shape you’re conclusion that action A,
or instead action B, is the right thing to do?
5. Are you entirely happy with this conclusion? What’s
been left unsaid.