Transcript Tree-Structured Indexes

Data Warehousing
and Decision Support
courtesy of Jiawei Han, Larry Kerschberg, and etc.
for some slides.
Jianlin Feng
School of Software
SUN YAT-SEN UNIVERSITY
Outline

Data Warehouse: Basic Concepts

Data Warehouse Modeling: Data Cube and
OLAP

Summary
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Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques
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What is a Data Warehouse?

Defined in many different ways, but not rigorously.

A decision support database that is maintained separately from
the organization’s operational database

Support information processing by providing a solid platform of
consolidated, historical data for analysis.

“A data warehouse is a subject-oriented, integrated, time-variant, and
nonvolatile collection of data in support of management’s decisionmaking process.”—W. H. Inmon

Data warehousing:

The process of constructing and using data warehouses
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Data Warehouse—Subject-Oriented

Organized around major subjects, such as customer,
product, sales

Focusing on the modeling and analysis of data for
decision makers, not on daily operations or transaction
processing

Provide a simple and concise view around particular
subject issues by excluding data that are not useful in the
decision support process
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Data Warehouse—Integrated


Constructed by integrating multiple, heterogeneous data
sources
 relational databases, flat files, on-line transaction
records
Data cleaning and data integration techniques are
applied.
 Ensure consistency in naming conventions, encoding
structures, attribute measures, etc. among different
data sources


E.g., Hotel price: currency, tax, breakfast covered, etc.
When data is moved to the warehouse, it is converted.
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Data Warehouse—Time Variant


The time horizon for the data warehouse is significantly
longer than that of operational systems

Operational database: current value data

Data warehouse data: provide information from a
historical perspective (e.g., past 5-10 years)
Every key structure in the data warehouse

Contains an element of time, explicitly or implicitly

But the key of operational data may or may not contain
“time element”
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Data Warehouse—Nonvolatile

A physically separate store of data transformed from the
operational environment

Operational update of data does not occur in the data
warehouse environment

Does not require transaction processing, recovery,
and concurrency control mechanisms

Requires only two operations in data accessing:

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initial loading of data and access of data
Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques
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OLTP vs. OLAP
OLTP
OLAP
users
clerk, IT professional
knowledge worker
function
day to day operations
decision support
DB design
application-oriented
subject-oriented
data
current, up-to-date
detailed, flat relational
isolated
repetitive
historical,
summarized, multidimensional
integrated, consolidated
ad-hoc
lots of scans
unit of work
read/write
index/hash on prim. key
short, simple transaction
# records accessed
tens
millions
#users
thousands
hundreds
DB size
100MB-GB
100GB-TB
metric
transaction throughput
query throughput, response
usage
access
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complex query
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Why a Separate Data Warehouse?



High performance for both systems

DBMS— tuned for OLTP: access methods, indexing, concurrency
control, recovery

Warehouse—tuned for OLAP: complex OLAP queries,
multidimensional view, consolidation
Different functions and different data:

missing data: Decision support requires historical data which
operational DBs do not typically maintain

data consolidation: DS requires consolidation (aggregation,
summarization) of data from heterogeneous sources

data quality: different sources typically use inconsistent data
representations, codes and formats which have to be reconciled
Note: There are more and more systems which perform OLAP analysis
directly on relational databases
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Data Warehouse: A Multi-Tiered Architecture
Other
sources
Operational
DBs
Monitor
&
Integrator
Metadata
Extract
Transform
Load
Refresh
Data
Warehouse
OLAP Server
Serve
Analysis
Query
Reports
Data mining
Data Marts
Data Sources
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Data Storage
OLAP Engine
Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques
Front-End Tools
10
Extraction, Transformation, and Loading (ETL)

Data extraction


Data cleaning


convert data from legacy or host format to warehouse format
Load


detect errors in the data and rectify them when possible
Data transformation


get data from multiple, heterogeneous, and external sources
sort, summarize, consolidate, compute views, check integrity, and
build indicies and partitions
Refresh
 propagate the updates from the data sources to the
warehouse
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Outline

Data Warehouse: Basic Concepts

Data Warehouse Modeling: Data Cube and
OLAP

Data Warehouse Design and Usage

Data Warehouse Implementation

Summary
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Data Cube Concept

Data Cube: A Relational Aggregation
Operator Generalizing Group-By, CrossTab and Sub-Totals

By Jim Gray et al, in IEEE ICDE’1996
CUBE: A Relational Aggregate Operator
Generalizing Group By (from Gray, et al)
Aggregate
Group By
(with total)
Sum
By Color
RED
WHITE
BLUE
Cross Tab
Chevy Ford
Sum
By Color
RED
WHITE
BLUE
The Data Cube and
The Sub-Space Aggregates
By Make
Sum
By Year
By Make
By Make & Year
RED
WHITE
BLUE
By Color & Year
Sum
By Make & Color
By Color
Data Analysis Tasks




Formulate a query to extract relevant
information
Extract the aggregated data from the
database into a file.
Visualize the result to look for patterns.
Analyze the result and perhaps formulate
new queries.
Goal of the Cube



Represent N-dimensional data cubes using
2-D relations
Compute the aggregate information within the
database,
Create language extensions to SQL that will
support the required operations.
Relational Representation of
N-Dimensional Data


Weather
information
consists of four
dimensions: Time,
Latitude, Longitude
and Altitude
Measured
SQL 1992 Standard supports aggregation functions:
variables are
Temperature and •Count (), Sum(), Min(), Max() and AVE(); Some SQL
systems have Median, Standard Deviation, variance, etc.
Pressure.
•SELECT AVE(Temp) FROM Weather
•SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT Time) FROM Weather
Group-By Operation and Aggregates



Group-By operation
defines an equivalence
relation on a table,
partitioning the tuples in
classes having the same
attribute values.
Each group can then be
aggregated.
TCP-D has one 6D
GROUP BY and three 3D
GROUP Bys.
SELECT Time, Altitude, AVE(Temp)
FROM Weather
GROUP BY Time, Altitude
Problems with GROUP-BY

Group-By cannot directly construct:



Histograms,
Roll-up Totals, Sub-totals for Drill-downs, and
Cross Tabulations.
Roll-Ups and Sub-Totals for DrillDown

Tables 3a,
3b, and 4
show Sales
Roll Up by
Model by
Year by
Color and an
Excel Pivot
Table with
this
information
Roll-Ups and Sub-Totals for DrillDown

Excel Pivot
Table

Sales
Summary
Roll Up in
Table 5a and
5b for Chevy
over all color
and years
(Note the
ALL value)
SQL Query for Chevy Roll Up
Cube: Each Attribute is a Dimension

N-dimensional Aggregate (sum(), max(),...)

Fits relational model exactly:


Super-aggregate over N-1 Dimensional sub-cubes






a1, a2, ...., aN, f()
ALL, a2, ...., aN , f()
a1 , ALL, a3, ...., aN , f()
...
a1, a2, ...., ALL, f()
This is the N-1 Dimensional cross-tab.
Super-aggregate over N-2 Dimensional sub-cubes



ALL, ALL, a3, ...., aN , f()
...
a1, a2 ,...., ALL, ALL, f()
Sub-cube Derivation
<M,Y,C>
<M,Y,*>
<M,*,C>
<M,*,*>
<*,Y,*>
<*,Y,C>
<*,*,C>
<*,*,*>

Dimension collapse, * denotes ALL
Cube Operator Example
SALES
Model Year Color
Chevy 1990 red
Chevy 1990 w hite
Chevy 1990 blue
Chevy 1991 red
Chevy 1991 w hite
Chevy 1991 blue
Chevy 1992 red
Chevy 1992 w hite
Chevy 1992 blue
Ford 1990 red
Ford 1990 w hite
Ford 1990 blue
Ford 1991 red
Ford 1991 w hite
Ford 1991 blue
Ford 1992 red
Ford 1992 w hite
Ford 1992 blue
Sales
5
87
62
54
95
49
31
54
71
64
62
63
52
9
55
27
62
39
CUBE
DATA CUBE
Model Year Color
ALL ALL ALL
chevy ALL ALL
f ord ALL ALL
ALL 1990 ALL
ALL 1991 ALL
ALL 1992 ALL
ALL ALL red
ALL ALL w hite
ALL ALL blue
chevy 1990 ALL
chevy 1991 ALL
chevy 1992 ALL
f ord 1990 ALL
f ord 1991 ALL
f ord 1992 ALL
chevy ALL red
chevy ALL w hite
chevy ALL blue
f ord ALL red
f ord ALL w hite
f ord ALL blue
ALL 1990 red
ALL 1990 w hite
ALL 1990 blue
ALL 1991 red
ALL 1991 w hite
ALL 1991 blue
ALL 1992 red
ALL 1992 w hite
ALL 1992 blue
Sales
942
510
432
343
314
285
165
273
339
154
199
157
189
116
128
91
236
183
144
133
156
69
149
125
107
104
104
59
116
110
Interesting Aggregate Functions

From RedBrick systems






Rank (in sorted order)
N-Tile (histograms)
Running average (cumulative functions)
Windowed running average
Percent of total
Users want to define their own aggregate
functions


statistics
domain specific
Conceptual Modeling of Data Warehouses

Modeling data warehouses: dimensions & measures

Star schema: A fact table in the middle connected to a
set of dimension tables

Snowflake schema: A refinement of star schema
where some dimensional hierarchy is normalized into a
set of smaller dimension tables, forming a shape similar
to snowflake

Fact constellations: Multiple fact tables share
dimension tables, viewed as a collection of stars,
therefore called galaxy schema or fact constellation
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Example of Star Schema
time
item
time_key
day
day_of_the_week
month
quarter
year
Sales Fact Table
time_key
item_key
item_name
brand
type
supplier_type
item_key
branch_key
branch
location_key
branch_key
branch_name
branch_type
units_sold
dollars_sold
location
location_key
street
city
state_or_province
country
avg_sales
Measures
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Example of Snowflake Schema
time
item
time_key
day
day_of_the_week
month
quarter
year
Sales Fact Table
time_key
item_key
item_name
brand
type
supplier_key
supplier
supplier_key
supplier_type
item_key
branch_key
branch
location_key
branch_key
branch_name
branch_type
units_sold
dollars_sold
avg_sales
Measures
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Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques
location
location_key
street
city_key
city
city_key
city
state_or_province
country
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Example of Fact Constellation
time
time_key
day
day_of_the_week
month
quarter
year
item
Sales Fact Table
time_key
item_key
item_name
brand
type
supplier_type
Shipping Fact Table
time_key
item_key
shipper_key
item_key
from_location
branch_key
branch
location_key
branch_key
branch_name
branch_type
units_sold
dollars_sold
avg_sales
location
location_key
street
city
province_or_state
country
Measures
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Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques
to_location
dollars_cost
units_shipped
shipper
shipper_key
shipper_name
location_key
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shipper_type
A Concept Hierarchy: Dimension (location)
all
all
Europe
region
country
city
office
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Germany
Frankfurt
...
...
North_America
Spain
Canada
Vancouver
...
L. Chan
...
Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques
...
...
Mexico
Toronto
M. Wind
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Data Cube Measures: Three Categories

Distributive: if the result derived by applying the function to
n aggregate values is the same as that derived by applying
the function on all the data without partitioning


Algebraic: if it can be computed by an algebraic function
with M arguments (where M is a bounded integer), each of
which is obtained by applying a distributive aggregate
function


E.g., count(), sum(), min(), max()
E.g., avg(), min_N(), standard_deviation()
Holistic: if there is no constant bound on the storage size
needed to describe a subaggregate.
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E.g., median(), mode(), rank()
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Typical OLAP Operations over Data Cube

Roll up (drill-up): summarize data

by climbing up hierarchy or by dimension reduction

Drill down (roll down): reverse of roll-up

from higher level summary to lower level summary or
detailed data, or introducing new dimensions
Slice and dice: project and select

Pivot (rotate):



reorient the cube, visualization, 3D to series of 2D planes
Other operations


drill across: involving (across) more than one fact table
drill through: through the bottom level of the cube to its
back-end relational tables (using SQL)
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Definition of Cube Operation

A new operator cube by, introduced by Gray et al.’96
SELECT item, city, year, SUM (amount)
FROM SALES
CUBE BY item, city, year
()

Need compute the following Group-Bys
(city)
(date, product, customer),
(date,product),(date, customer), (product, customer),
(date), (product), (customer)
(city, item)
()
(item)
(city, year)
(year)
(item, year)
(city, item, year)
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Cube: A Lattice of Cuboids
all
time
0-D (apex) cuboid
item
time,location
time,item
location
supplier
item,location
time,supplier
1-D cuboids
location,supplier
2-D cuboids
item,supplier
time,location,supplier
3-D cuboids
time,item,location
time,item,supplier
item,location,supplier
4-D (base) cuboid
time, item, location, supplier
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Iceberg Cube

Computing only the cuboid cells whose count or other
aggregates satisfy a condition with minimum support, e.g.
HAVING COUNT(*) >= minsup
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Indexing OLAP Data: Bitmap Index





Index on a particular column
Each value in the column has a bit vector: bit-op is fast
The length of the bit vector: # of records in the base table
The i-th bit is set if the i-th row of the base table has the value for the
indexed column
A recent bit compression technique, Word-Aligned Hybrid (WAH),
makes it work for high cardinality domain as well [Wu, et al. TODS’06]
Base table
Cust
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5
Region
Asia
Europe
Asia
America
Europe
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Index on Region
Index on Type
Type RecIDAsia Europe America RecID Retail Dealer
Retail
1
1
0
1
1
0
0
Dealer 2
2
0
1
0
1
0
Dealer 3
1
0
0
3
0
1
4
0
0
1
4
1
0
Retail
0
1
0
5
0
1
Dealer 5
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Indexing OLAP Data: Join Indices

Join index:


JI(R-id, S-id) where R (R-id, …)  S (S-id, …)
In data warehouses, join index relates the
values of the dimensions of a star schema to
rows in the fact table.
 E.g. fact table: Sales and two dimensions
city and product
 A join index on city maintains for each
distinct city a list of R-IDs of the tuples
recording the Sales in the city
 Join indices can span multiple dimensions
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Efficient Processing OLAP Queries

Determine which operations should be performed on the available cuboids

Transform drill, roll, etc. into corresponding SQL and/or OLAP operations,
e.g., dice = selection + projection

Determine which materialized cuboid(s) should be selected for OLAP op.

Let the query to be processed be on {brand, province_or_state} with the
condition “year = 2004”, and there are 4 materialized cuboids available:
1) {year, item_name, city}
2) {year, brand, country}
3) {year, brand, province_or_state}
4) {item_name, province_or_state} where year = 2004
Which should be selected to process the query?

Explore indexing structures and compressed vs. dense array structs in MOLAP
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OLAP Server Architectures



Relational OLAP (ROLAP)

Use relational or extended-relational DBMS to store and manage
warehouse data and OLAP middle ware

Include optimization of DBMS backend, implementation of
aggregation navigation logic, and additional tools and services

Greater scalability
Multidimensional OLAP (MOLAP)

Sparse array-based multidimensional storage engine

Fast indexing to pre-computed summarized data
Hybrid OLAP (HOLAP) (e.g., Microsoft SQLServer)

Flexibility, e.g., low level: relational, high-level: array
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Summary




Decision support is an emerging, rapidly growing
subarea of databases.
Involves the creation of large, consolidated data
repositories called data warehouses.
Warehouses exploited using sophisticated analysis
techniques: complex SQL queries and OLAP
“multidimensional”queries (influenced by both SQL
and spreadsheets).
New techniques for database design, indexing, view
maintenance, and interactive querying need to be
supported.