Transcript Natural Law and PURPOSE

NATURAL LAW
Aquinas’s Natural Moral Law
THE THEORY
EVALUATION OF STRENGTHS
AND WEAKNESSES
Initial Points
• Generally Natural Law means that there are certain laws
that occur naturally as part of the universe, they are fixed
and unchanging and separate from human opinion – and
potentially discoverable through reason. We find that
others have come to the same conclusions.
• Origins: these laws may have been put there by God, or
simply exist without reason.
• The interpretation of Natural Law we are considering is
the one developed by Aquinas and which functions
within morality and Christianity, necessitating a God
who is responsible for the laws.
Natural Law - Aquinas
About Aquinas;
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14663b.htm
• Born 1225 in Naples. Died 1274.
• Started training at age 5 with
Benedictine Monks.
• Work based on Aristotle
• He wrote about a wide range of topics
including knowledge, ethics,
metaphysics, politics, psychology…
• Main work, the "Summa theologica"
Roman Catholic church
- Adopted Aquinas’ ideas as their ‘official
view’
Roman Catholics determine what is ‘good’ by
applying Natural Law. Specifically it is the
church leaders (priests, the Pope, Vatican
Council) who apply Natural Law rather than the
lay community of Catholics; who are expected
instead to follow the teachings of these church
leaders.
Defining Natural Law - Catholic Encyclopaedia
• According to St. Thomas, the natural law is "nothing else than
the rational creature's participation in the eternal law”
• When God willed to give existence to creatures, he willed to
direct them towards an end - a PURPOSE.
• Because of his intelligence and free will, man is master of his
own conduct. But is subject to God’s law.
• The rule, then, which God has prescribed for our conduct, is
found in our NATURE itself. Those actions which conform
with its tendencies, lead to our destined end, and are thereby
right and morally good; those at variance with our nature are
wrong and immoral.
Examples
a) It is wrong to drink to intoxication, for, besides being
injurious to health, such indulgence deprives one of the use
of REASON, which is intended by God to be the guide and
dictator of conduct.
b) Theft is wrong, because it subverts the basis of social life;
and man's nature requires for proper development that he
live in a state of society.
A Classic Example;
“Thou shalt not kill"; this need careful understanding as the
taking of human life is sometimes a lawful, and even an
obligatory act. This does not present a variation in the law;
what the law forbids is not all taking of life, but all unjust
taking of life.
Natural Law as NATURAL
• Natural because it is set up in our very nature, created by God.
• Natural because it is revealed to us by the natural process of
reason.
• Viewed like ‘scientific’ laws of nature in that they are part of
the structure of the universe
• Aquinas was an Ethical Naturalist because he believed we
could locate and understand morals through reference to
nature.
• Unchanging and fixed, universal, that is to say, it applies to the
entire human race, and is in itself the same for all and
immutable (cannot cease to exist - eternal).
Natural Law and God (Christianity)
• Aquinas needed to explain his theory carefully to show
he was not replacing faith with reason and therefore
replacing Christianity.
• He showed that human reasoning came from God (and
so necessitating God’s existence).
• He promoted the value of applying common sense
(reasoning) in moral decision making, rather than
‘blinding’ following Biblical commands.
• Aquinas showed how Biblical teachings and reasoning
can work together. Appealing to intelligent people and
still remaining faithful to God.
Natural Law, Aristotle and PURPOSE
Aristotle and CAUSE
(remember Aristotle
predate Christianity)
Everything in the
universe has an Efficient
Cause – the agent that
brings something about;
and a Final Cause – an
ultimate reason for
existence (purpose).
Aquinas adopted this
view and combined it
with his Christian
beliefs;
God is the agent who
bought everything into
existence AND each thing
that exists has a reason
(purpose).
Natural Law, GOODNESS & PURPOSE
Aristotle…
..said that something
was ‘good’ if it fitted
its purpose – was
worked towards
‘actualising’ its
potential.
E.g., a good knife is
one that cuts well,
because that is its
purpose.
Aquinas…
…made this fit a Christian
context;
To be ‘good’ involves
following / acting in
accordance with God’s
purpose. As that is God’s will.
In other words; Goodness is
about fulfilling ones purpose,
which means turning
potentiality into actuality.
Natural Law and REASON
• Reasoning involves using observation, applying
intelligence and common-sense. Looking at the
design and function apparent in nature and
drawing conclusions.
• Reasoning is a gift from God.
• Aquinas claims that we can discover Natural
Moral Laws that inform us of our purpose
through reasoning and reference to Biblical
teachings;
The Formula:
Biblical teachings + Reasoning = Purpose
The ‘Sex’ Example - Natural Law in practice
Biblical teachings on sex:
‘..man will leave his father and mother and be united to his
wife, and they will become one flesh’ Genesis 2:24
+
Reasoning regarding sex :
We can observe in nature that the different genders are
designed in such a way as to reproduce and we can note
that the product of such couplings is the creation of new
life.
= A key purpose of sex is to create new life.
The implications of this….
Roman Catholic’s who use Natural Law (as advised by
their church leaders) are opposed to;
• Contraception and Abortion – because they interfere
with / work against the purpose of sex (to create new
life); which is therefore against the will of God.
So, it is with reference to Natural Law theory that Roman
Catholics can justify and explain their opposition to
contraception and abortion.
Natural Law Summary – Key notes
• Like Natural Laws such as gravity there are naturally
occurring moral laws put in place by God.
• An Absolutist approach to morality not Relativist.
• Laws are defined as;
Universal, Fixed, Unchanging, Objective (not subject
to public opinion), Applying to all people.
They reveal God’s purpose for us.
• Christian understanding of the concept is largely
based on the work of Saint Thomas Aquinas.
• Key words include: NATURAL LAWS, GOODNESS,
PURPOSE, GOD’S WILL, REASONING, BIBLICAL
TEACHINGS AND ROMAN CATHOLICS.
How to act morally according to
Aquinas’s version of Natural Law…
• To know what it is to be ‘good’ requires….
• Knowledge of our purpose based on God’s will
which requires…..
• Knowing the Natural Moral Laws set down by
God which requires….
• Using Reasoning + Biblical teachings (the Natural
Law approach to making moral decisions).
Strengths of Natural Law
• It is an absolute moral code, not just opinion nor
subject to change and is applicable to everyone.
This means a shared, objective morality with no
cultural barriers. So, one society can judge
another.
• Uses and respects human reasoning.
• Appeals instinctively to people; that morality is
based on more than just opinion and is relative
from culture to culture. We can identified shared
morals with vastly different people and cultures.
Weaknesses of Natural Law
• Aquinas assumes the existence of God.
• Aquinas assumes God created the world for a purpose,
Sartre, Russell and Dawkins would argue that it simply
came about by chance.
• Darwin offers an alternative explanation of the purpose
of our designed which does not include a God –
Evolution and Natural Selection.
• Even if there were a purpose it may not be as clear as
Aquinas claims; what we consider to be ‘natural’
changes over time. E.g. Homosexuality was long
considered ‘unnatural’ yet recent studies suggest it may
be genetically determined and therefore extremely
natural. This is a meta ethical problem.
• Aquinas was optimistic. Not everyone wants to do good.
Aquinas’s reply – they have simply misunderstood
how to be good and think they are acting morally.
Counter Criticism: We can give examples of people who
are not acting according to what is right e.g., bullies.
• A strict application of Natural Law may be impractical.
E.g., if the purpose of sex is procreation what of those who are
infertile? E.g., if the purpose of every man and woman is to marry
and have children to be in accordance with the good; where does
that leave Mother Teresa – should we call her immoral!
Aquinas’s reply – some individuals may choose other
ways of life so long as humanity works towards its
purpose.
Counter Criticism: But would this then give license to
‘unnatural’ actions in society, provided there were enough
people still following human kinds purpose
• The Fall - Original sin occurred through the
quest for knowledge over faith. This event led
to a distancing of humanity from God,
meaning that we cannot accurately understand
his purpose for us and must place greater trust
in Biblical teachings and direct revelations
rather than reasoning.
• Natural Law falls into G.E.Moore’s
‘Naturalistic Fallacy’, it is false reasoning to
judge what ‘ought’ to be done morally based
on observations of what ‘is’ done in the world.
Practice Exam questions
(a) Explain how the concept of ‘purpose’ is
used in Natural Law. [33 marks] A01
(b)‘Natural Law is an easy system to live by’.
Discuss. [17 marks] A02