Transcript Process Modelling - Monash University

IMS9300 IS/IM FUNDAMENTALS
Professional practice
Ethics in IM/IT
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The Origins of Professions
• What do these have in
common?
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Lawyer
Priest
Soldier
Doctor
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Historical Overview
•The modern concept of professionalism
only emerged in the early 20th. century
– appearance of new occupational groups
– occupations that “service” the established
industrial/commercial economy
– occupational grouping organised in a
collegial manner
– growth of university professional schools
– occupations as the focus of study by social
scientists
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Characteristics of Professions
control over:
- acquisition of knowledge
- application of knowledge
- access to the profession
jurisdiction over:
- knowledge
- members
power:
- within society
- within profession
- over client
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Features of the Professions
•The characteristics of professions are
guaranteed by institutional forms:
Standards
–ethical codes; licensing; associations
Extensive training
–formal; practical
Legislative
–disciplinary
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The Nature of Professions
•Individualistic
– the professional is self employed
•Exclusive
– no other can do the work
– barriers to entry to profession
•Esoteric
– non-routine application of a body of
knowledge on a case by case basis
•Territorial
– profession is concerned with maintaining
jurisdictional boundaries over the body of
knowledge
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Professions over Time
•It is important to recognise that
professions change over time and that
professions can “die” ( become extinct).
•Changes to:
– the content of professional work
– the body of knowledge
– technology
(specialised work becomes
routine/automated)
•Inability of the profession to abstract
knowledge in the face of technological
change leads to professional death.
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Profession a (useful) definition
•A profession is an organised body of
experts who apply esoteric knowledge to
particular cases.
(Abbot, 1988; p4)
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The IS Professional (in theory)
• possesses broad and deep knowledge
• has highly developed skills
• has an altruistic attitude towards the
client
• is committed to high ethical standards
• is self reliant and free from influence,
guidance or control of any other
individual or organisation
•
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(Mason, Masom & Culnan, 1995; p153)
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The IS Professional
• The Body of Knowledge - about:
–information,
–knowledge and
–information technology
• Skills in
- processing symbols (models):
–abstracting the codified or objectified aspects of
subjective information
• Standards - professional ethics:
–quality standards,
–organisational standards
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Responsibility of the Professional
• The interaction between a professional and a
client involves both an information exchange
and a power relationship
• The client is always at a disadvantage because
they want something that only a professional
can provide
• The professional is in a position to influence the
client’s behaviour and thinking
• Ethical responsibility derives from the power
advantage enjoyed by the professional
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The Professional as Employee
• Where professionals are employed directly by
an organisation they need to serve two masters:
• work towards achieving organisational goals
and objectives by following superior’s
instructions.
• a duty to exercise judgement in any given
situation that is consistent with their profession
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Accountability of the Professional
• To maintain its privileged position, the profession needs
to be accountable to society.
• At the same time, individual professionals need to be
accountable to the public in general and their clients in
particular
• A code of ethics is the formal means by which the
profession and individuals are held accountable
Remember: the state has ceded to (given) the profession the
right to control the behaviour of the professional)
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Social Responsibility of Professions
Monitor & regulate
Practice & practitioners
Set &monitor
standards
of practice
Educate public
regarding
acceptable practice
Develop & maintain
body of knowledge
Social
Purpose
Educate & train
professionals
Social
Responsibility
of Profession
Body of
Knowledge
Source: Mason, Mason &Culnan, 1995; p163
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Individual Responsibilities
• do no harm
• be competent
• maintain independence and avoid conflict
of interest
• match client expectations
• maintain fiduciary responsibility
(information held in trust)
• safeguard client’s privacy
• protect records
• safeguard intellectual property
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Individual Responsibilities (cont.)
•
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provide quality information avoid bias
manage gatekeeping and censorship
keep client confidentiality
obtain informed consent
abide by the legal regime (laws,
contracts, licence agreements)
• be a steward of client’s resources
(provide information at the right time,
place form and cost)
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Professional Judgement
•Professionals work in environments which are:
– contextually and situationally unique
– uncertain in that multiple outcomes are possible and
acceptable
– complex in that there are multiple, simultaneous
interpretations of the situation
– value laden in that two or more diverse ends are
usually pursued simultaneously
•Meeting client needs is not purely a technical,
analytically predetermined task. Moreover
technology provides another dimension which
opens many other choices.
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Ethics in IM/IS
•The exercise of power always raises
ethical issues
•Power stems from
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position
knowledge
credentials
“information is power
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Perspectives on Ethical Issues
•Ethical issues need to be considered on 2 levels:
the context
-how the information system and its products fit, and are used, in the
organisation and/or the broader community the object
the product
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how the information system is designed and constructed
•These two levels are interdependent and both
need to be addressed.
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Ethics and Morality
Morality - human conduct and values
Ethics - the study of conduct and values
• Common usage is that the terms are
interchangable
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Ethics as Standards
The continuum of standards:
Etiquette
Laws
Professional
Codes
Ethics
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Moral Standards
• Independent of religion
• Societal differences are not significant when
considered at a meta-level
• Apply to both individuals and society in the
sense that of how individuals perceives that
society or their ideals, values and aspirations for
that society.
• The central issue is whether an ethical principle
can be justified rather than concern with where
and how the principle was formed.
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Characteristics of Moral Standards
• Behaviour can have serious consequences
for human welfare, either to profundly
injure or benefit people
• Takes priority over other standards
• Dependent on the adequacy of the reasons
that support or justify the standard
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Etiquette
• Social code of behaviour
• Generally non-moral
• transgression results in social isolation
( a person is considered uncivilised,
ill-mannered)
• can have moral implications eg sexism,
racism
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Law
• Codifies customs, ideals, beliefs and
society’s moral values
• conformity with the law is not sufficient
for moral conduct but the law provides
some minimum standards of moral
conduct and social behaviour
• non-conformity is not necessarily
immoral
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Types of Law
• Statutes - legislation passed by legislative
bodies
• Regulations administrative rules formulated
by statutory bodies
• Common law- accumulated legal decisions
which form a body of legal principles (only in
English speaking countries
• Constitutional - compatibility of any law with the
relevant constitution
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Professional Codes
• Rules that govern the conduct of
members
• Members assume a moral obligation to
conform
• Conformity is a condition of membership
• Violation can result in exclusion
• Are incomplete and inadequate as a
guide for individual ethical behaviour
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Ethical Theories
•Relativism
–no absolute or universal right and wrong
–moral standards as a function of societal beliefs
•Universalism
–what is right/wrong applies to all
•Consequentialism
–considers the outcome of behaviour
•Deontologism
–duty
–what is right
–rights
•Utilitarianism
–proper outcome is the greatest good over bad for all affected by the action
–linked to cost/benefits and risk management
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Influences on ethical judgement
• Environment – time, place, pressure
• Individual - family, peer censure, what
people think
• Society - social norms, etiquette
• Belief system - religious, “living with
oneself”
• Legal environment - laws
• Professional environment - code of
conduct - enforced or guideline
(Kreie & Cronan, 1998)
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Element of Ethical Behaviour
•
Accountability - to onself and to ones ideals
•
Obligations - to act morally in relation to others
affected by that act
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Responsibility - both social and moral
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Intentionality - to act consistently with moral
standards
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Role of Ethical Training
• To make defensible moral judgement
• To reflect critically on the moral
principles and ideals involved in a
particular situation
• To have a framework for critical analysis
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Making Ethical Judgement
• Judgements need to be:
– logical
– based on facts
– based on acceptable principles
• Presumes
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rational actors
good will
mutual desire for judgement
ability to communicate clearly
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Ethical Decision Making
• Evaluate the factual claim and determine what
are the relevant facts
• Challenge the moral standard and identify what
ethical principles are involved
• Defend the moral standard and determine which
principle has primacy
• Revise and modify the moral standard to
determine if there is another way see the
situation
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Ethical Decision Making process
•Determine the relevant facts
•Identify the ethical principles involved
– Which standards are at risk?
– What are the “consequences” of the action?
•Determine which principle is most important
•Check whether there are other ways see the
situation
– employer’s view (as a society as well as power)
– profession’s view,
– society’s view
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The Professional Dilema
• Professional duties and responsibilities
(sometimes) conflict with organisational goals
and outcomes.
• Ethical behaviour can conflict with legal statutes
and/or contractual obligations
• The professional needs knowledge and skills to
resolve these conflicts by themselves as the
situations arise in particular contexts.
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Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde
• The organisational dilema is:
“... the structure and function of organisations in general, and
corporate organisations in particular, require that members
adhere to the organisational norms and, in fact, force
commitment and conformity to them.”
(Shaw, 1991; p22)
• Raises the discrepancy between individual and
corporate ethics and the resolution of the
conflict between the two.
• It also suggests that organisations can be seen
as moral agents, analogous to the concept of
the organisation as a legal entity, and can be
accountable for their actions.
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A Practical Ethical Test
•“Before you act, be sure you will
be comfortable with an [The
Australian / The Age ] story,
tomorrow morning, reporting
what you did.”
(Oz, 1994; p11)
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References
•
REYNOLDS, G. (2003) Ethics in Information Technology, Thomson
Learning, Inc. Massachusetts.
Chapter 2
Background reading:
• TURBAN,E., RAINER, R.K. Jnr. and POTTER, R.E. (2003) 2nd ed.,
Introduction to Information Technology. JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.
Section 15
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