Transcript ETHICS IN SOCIAL SCIENCES

ETHICS IN SOCIAL
SCIENCES
DILIP NACHANE
DIRECTOR, IGIDR
UNDP PROGRAMME , IGIDR
23 MARCH 2009
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• "SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH IS
ALWAYS AND BY LOGICAL NECESSITY
BASED ON MORAL AND POLITICAL
VALUATIONS, AND THE RESEARCHER
SHOULD BE OBLIGED TO ACCOUNT
FOR THEM EXPLICITLY" (MYRDAL).
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ETHICS (VALUE THEORY,
AXIOLOGY)
• ETHICS IS CONCERNED WITH WHY
AND HOW PEOPLE VALUE ( AS
DISTINCT FROM MARKET PRICES)
OBJECTS, ( GOODS, SERVICES,
IDEAS,ACTIONS, PERSONS, ETC.)
• VALUE IS A PROPERTY OF OBJECTS
• AN OBJECT WITH A HIGH VALUE MAY
BE CONSIDERED AS ETHIC GOOD AND
WITH A LOW VALUE AN ETHIC BAD
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EXAMPLES
. EVERY ONE ATTACHES HIGH VALUE
TO ACTIONS LIKE SELF-SACRIFICE,
CHARITY, MEDICAL
HEALING,SCHOLARSHIP ETC. THESE
ARE THEN ETHIC GOODS
CORRESPONDINGLY ACTIVITIES LIKE
CORRUPTION, MURDER, ROWDYISM,
ETC ARE ETHIC BADS
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RELATIVE AND ABSOLUTE
VALUES
• RELATIVE VALUES ARE SUBJECTIVE
DEPENDING ON PERSONAL AND
CULTURAL ATTITUDES E.G. SOME
SOCIETIES RESPECT SCHOLARSHIP
WHILE OTHERS RESPECT RELIGOSITY
WHILE STILL OTHERS RESPECT
PHYSICAL OR MATERIAL
ACHIEVEMENTS. RELATIVE VALUES
MAY CHANGE AS THE PERSON OR
THE SOCIETY CHANGES.
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RELATIVE AND ABSOLUTE
VALUES (CONTD.)
• ABSOLUTE VALUES ARE
INDEPENDENT OF PERSONS OR
CULTURE. HONESTY,CHARITY AND
SELF-SACRIFICE ARE EXAMPLES OF
ABSOLUTE VALUES. THEY WOULD
COMMAND HIGH RESPECT IN AFRICA,
INDIA, MIDDLE EAST OR EUROPE.
(MOTHER TERESA, GANDHI, MARTIN
LUTHER KING)
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RELATIVE AND ABSOLUTE
VALUES (CONTD.)
• SIMILARLY CERTAIN
ARTISTS/WRITERS/MUSICIANS ARE
UNIVERSALLY RESPECTED
(TOLSTOY, SHAKESPEARE,
BEETHOVEN ETC.). ONE MAY THEN
SAY THAT THEY COMMAND A HIGH
ABSOLUTE VALUE.
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VALUES IN SOME SOCIAL
SCIENCES
• PSYCHOLOGY : ISSUES OF INTEREST
• HOW HUMAN BEINGS DEVELOP,
ASSERT,AND BELIEVE IN CERTAIN VALUES.
• HOW PERSONAL BEHAVIOUR IS GUIDED BY
CERTAIN VALUES
• HOW VALUES EVOLVE AT DIFFERENT
STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
• REFORMING CERTAIN VALUES IN CASES OF
DEVIANT BEHAVIOUR (PSYCHO-THERAPY)
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VALUES IN SOME SOCIAL
SCIENCES (CONTD.)
• SOCIOLOGY :
• PERSONAL VALUES HELD BY
VARIOUS COMMUNITIES (TRIBAL,
RURAL AND URBAN)
• VALUE TRANSITION
• VALUE ENGINEERING
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TWO TYPES OF ETHICAL
BEHAVIOUR
• FIRST-ORDER ETHICAL BEHAVIOUR :
DOING THE RIGHT ACTION SIMPLY
BECAUSE IT IS RIGHT , AND THE INDIVIDUAL
DERIVES NO BENEFIT FROM PERFORMING
THE ACTION (ANONYMOUS DONATION,
HELPING ACCIDENT VICTIM) COMMITMENT
• SECOND-ORDER ETHICAL BEHAVIOUR :
DOING A RIGHT ACTION FROM WHICH THE
INDIVIDUAL DERIVES A MEASURE OF
UTILITY (CHARITY) SYMPATHY
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TWO TYPES OF ETHICAL
BEHAVIOUR (contd.)
• COMMITMENT (FIRST-ORDER ETHICAL
BEHAVIOUR) FAVOURS CORRECTIVE
ACTION BECAUSE YOU FIND THE
SITUATION ETHICALLY UNACCEPTABLE
(HUMAN & ANIMAL RIGHTS)
• SYMPATHY (SECOND-ORDER ETHICAL
BEHAVIOUR) FAVOURS ACTION BECAUSE
YOUR WELFARE IS DIRECTLY AFFECTED BY
A CONCERN FOR OTHERS (CHARITY,
MAINTAINING A QUEUE ETC.)
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VALUES IN ECONOMICS
• ECONOMIC VALUE RELATES TO THE
PRICE A COMMODITY COMMANDS IN
THE MARKET BECAUSE OF
SUPPLY/DEMAND SITUATION,
WHEREAS INTRINSIC VALUE IS THE
INHERENT VALUE TO THE INDIVIDUAL
• (WATER-DIAMOND PARADOX)
• ETHICAL VALUE IS VALUE OF A GOOD
OR ACTIVITY TO SOCIETY
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ECONOMIC VALUE VS. ETHICAL
VALUE
• ECONOMIC AND ETHICAL VALUES
MAY SOMETIMES BE IN CONFLICT.
CIGARETTE INDUSTRY MAY HAVE
ECONOMIC VALUE AS IT GENERATES
INCOME FOR TOBACCO GROWERS,
WORKERS, HEART AND CANCER
SURGEONS, GOVERNMENT ETC. BUT
IT DOES NOT HAVE MUCH ETHICAL
VALUE (SIMILARLY ALCOHOL, DRUGS
ETC.)
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VALUES IN ECONOMICS
• CAN ECONOMICS BE VALUEFREE? OR DOES MORALITY
MATTER TO ECONOMIC
ANALYSIS?
• THIS QUESTION HAS AGITATED
ECONOMISTS FOR AT LEAST TWO
CENTURIES.
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VALUES IN ECONOMICS – A
BRIEF HISTORICAL ACCOUNT
• 1. UTILITARIANISM OR NEO-CLASSICAL
APPROACH :
• JEREMY BENTHAM (1748-1832) :
• MORALS AND LAW CAN BE APPROACHED
SCIENTIFICALLY
• NATURE CAN BE EXPLAINED WITH
REFERENCE TO LAWS OF PHYSICS, SO
ALSO HUMAN NATURE CAN BE EXPLAINED
BY THE PRINCIPLES OF PLEASURE & PAIN
(PSYCHOLOGICAL HEDONISM).
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JEREMY BENTHAM (1748-1832) :
• PLEASURE AND PAIN ARE OBJECTIVE
STATES AND ARE MEASURABLE IN
TERMS OF A SINGLE NUMBER
(UTILITY). THUS I CAN SAY THAT I
DERIVE 20 UTILS FROM LISTENING TO
BEETHOVEN’S 9TH SYMPHONY. IF YOU
SAY THAT YOU GET 10 UTILS FROM
THE SAME, THEN MY PLEASURE IS
DOUBLE YOURS. PAIN CAN BE
EXPRESSED IN NEGATIVE UTILS
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JEREMY BENTHAM (1748-1832) :
• EACH INDIVIDUAL EXHIBITS A
NATURAL, RATIONAL SELF-INTEREST
(EGOISM)
• SELF-INTEREST DOMINATES OVER
SOCIAL INTEREST
• COMMUNITY INTEREST IS SIMPLY THE
SUM OF THE INTERESTS OF THE
INDIVIDUAL MEMBERS COMPOSING IT.
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EXTENSIONS
• LATER ECONOMISTS (SIDGWICK,
MARSHALL, PIGOU) DEVELOPED UTILITY
THEORY INTO A FULL SCALE NEOCLASSICAL THEORY BASED ON THE
FOLLOWING ASUMPTIONS :
• UTILITY IS MEASURABLE (CARDINAL) AND
ADDITIONAL CONSUMPTION YIELDS
SMALLER AND SMALLER INCREMENTS TO
UTILITY.
• DIFFERENT PERSONS’ UTILITIES ARE
COMPARABLE AND HENCE CAN BE ADDED
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NEW WELFARE ECONOMICS
• PARETO, HICKS, KALDOR ETC.
• DISTINGUISH BETWEEN EFFICIENCY AND
EQUITY. AVOID CONCEPTS OF CARDINAL
UTILITY AND INTERPERSONAL
COMPARISONS.
• A SITUATION IS PARETO EFFICIENT IF BY
ANY ALTERATION OF THE SITUATION WE
CANNOT MAKE EVERYBODY BETTER OFF
• EXAMPLES(PARETO INEFFICIENCY)
INTRODUCTION OF A QUEUE AT A
COUNTER, TRAFFIC LIGHTS AT A JUNCTION
ETC.)
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PARETO EFFICIENCY (CONTD.)
• MOST REAL-LIFE SITUATIONS ARE MORE
COMPLEX. AS AN EXAMPLE TAKE THE CASE OF
CONSTRUCTION OF A BRIDGE FINANCED BY
TAXES ON THE RESIDENTS IN THAT AREA.
VEHICLES USING THAT BRIDGE GAIN BUT TAX
PAYERS IN THAT AREA LOSE.
• IF THE TOLLS THAT CAN BE COLLECTED FROM
USERS OF THAT BRIDGE ARE SUFFICIENT TO
REPAY THE TAXES COLLECTED WITH INTEREST
THEN THE SITUATION CAN BE CONSIDERED
PARETO OPTIMAL. OTHERWISE NOT. (KALDOR
COMPENSATION PRINCIPLE)
• OTHER EXAMPLES -- CONSTRUCTION OF A DAM,
POLLUTING FACTORIES ETC.
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EQUITY UNDER PARETO
PRINCIPLES
• EACH PARETO OPTIMUM MAY
CORRESPOND TO A DIFFERENT INCOME
DISTRIBUTION, SOME OF WHICH MAY
INVOLVE GREAT INEQUALITIES.
• DIFFERENT PARETO OPTIMA CAN BE
COMPARED ONLY IF WE ASSIGN WEIGHTS
TO THE WELFARE OF DIFFERENT
INDIVIDUALS. THIS INVOLVES
INTERPERSONAL COMPARISONS OF
WELFARE. (SOCIAL WELFARE FUNCTION)
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SOCIAL WELFARE FUNCTION
GROUP WEIGHT
RICH
15%
STATE
A
80
MIDDLE
CLASS
POOR
25%
10
20
25
60%
10
10
50
20.5
21.5
40++
TOTAL
SW
STATE
B
70
STATE
C
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SOME CRITICISMS OF PARETIAN
WELFARE ECONOMICS
• WELFARE ECONOMICS GUIDED BY
THE PRINCIPLE THAT WHAT MATTERS
MOST IS THE WELFARE OF THE
COMMUNITY—IN PRACTICE WELFARE
IS IDENTIFIED WITH UTILITY
• IT IGNORES THE FACT THAT MY
UTILITY FROM AN OUTCOME
DEPENDS ON HOW OTHERS ARE
AFFECTED BY THAT OUTCOME
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CRITICISMS OF PARETIAN WELFARE
ECONOMICS (CONTD.)
• INTERPERSONAL COMPARISONS AND
VALUE JUDGEMENTS ARE INVOLVED.
• MERE COMPENSATION IS NOT
ENOUGH (E.G. DAM CONSTRUCTION
AND DISRUPTION OF LIFE STYLES)
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TWO FUNDAMENTAL CRITICISMS
OF PARETO EFFICIENCY
• 1. LIBERAL PARADOX
• 2. THEORIES OF DISTRIBUTIVE
JUSTICE
• WE NOW HAVE A VERY BRIEF
DISCUSSION OF EACH OF THE ABOVE
CRITICISMS.
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LIBERAL PARADOX
HUSBAND MOVIE
→
WIFE
↓
MOVIE
(4,3)
STAY AT HOME
STAY AT HOME (1,1)
(3,2)
(2,4)
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EXPLANATION
• FOR EACH OUTCOME, RED COLOUR
SHOW’S WIFE’S OUTCOME AND
GREEN HUSBAND’S OUTCOME
• UNDERLINED OUTCOMES ARE
PARETO OPTIMAL (BOTH CANNOT BE
BETTER OFF BY MOVING AWAY FROM
THESE OUTCOMES)
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LIBERAL PARADOX
EXPLANATION (CONTD).
• HUSBAND’S PREFERENCE :
• STAYING HOME ALONE >GOING FOR MOVIE
WITH WIFE > STAYING AT HOME WITH WIFE
> GOING FOR MOVIE ALONE
• WIFE’S PREFERENCE: GOING FOR MOVIE
WITH HUSBAND > STAYING AT HOME WITH
HUSBAND> GOING FOR MOVIE ALONE >
STAYING AT HOME ALONE
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AN IMAGINARY CONVERSATION
• WIFE : I WANT TO GO FOR A MOVIE
• HUSBAND : I WANT TO STAY HOME. YOU GO
FOR THE MOVIE ALONE.
• WIFE : OK. I WILL ALSO STAY AT HOME
• ------------------------------------------------------•
•
•
•
H : WANT TO GO FOR A MOVIE OR STAY HOME?
W : LET’S GO FOR A MOVIE
H: I WOULD PREFER TO STAY HOME
W : OK. LET’S STAY HOME.
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LIBERAL PARADOX
EXPLANATION (CONTD).
• THUS EVEN THOUGH THE PARETO
OPTIMAL OUTCOMES ARE :
• EITHER BOTH GO FOR A MOVIE OR
• WIFE GOES FOR THE MOVIE ALONE
• THE ACTUAL OUTCOME IS :
• BOTH STAY AT HOME, WHICH IS NOT
PARETO OPTIMAL, SINCE BOTH
WOULD BE BETTER OFF BY GOING TO
THE MOVIE
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SOME OTHER THEORIES OF
DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE
• 1. STRICT EGALITARIANISM :
• EVERY PERSON SHOULD HAVE THE SAME
LEVEL OF MATERIAL GOODS & SERVICES
• CRITICISMS : (I) UNDULY RESTRICTS
FREEDOM AND INITIATIVE (II) MAY BE IN
CONFLICT WITH WHAT PEOPLE DESERVE
(III) EQUAL INCOMES MAY BE A PARETO
INEFFICIENT SITUATION.
• CARENS, J. (1981) : EQUALITY, MORAL
INCENTIVES AND THE MARKET, CHICAGO
UNIV. PRESS
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STRICT EGALITARIANISM :
SOME ISSUES
• 1. SHOULD CONCEPT BE EXTENDED
TO INCLUDE EQUALITY OF
OPPORTUNITY ?
• 2. MAY NOT BE WELFARE MAXIMIZING
• 3. TIME-FRAMES. WHETHER STRICT
EQUALITY APPLIES ONLY AT SOME
INITIAL POINT (STARTING –GATE
VERSION) OR WHETHER SHOULD
HOLD AT ALL TIMES.
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SOME OTHER THEORIES OF
DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE
• 2. RAWLS’ THEORY OF JUSTICE :
• BASIC LIBERTIES OF A PERSON :
• 1. POLITICAL LIBERTY (VOTING AND
CONTESTING ELECTIONS)
• 2. FREEDOM OF SPEECH AND
ASSEMBLY
• 3. FREEDOM OF PROPERTY
• 4. FREEDOM FROM ARBITRARY
ARREST
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RAWLS’ THEORY OF JUSTICE
(CONTD.)
• RAWLS’ FIRST PRINCIPLE :
• EACH PERSON IS TO HAVE AN EQUAL
RIGHT TO THE MOST EXTENSIVE
SCHEME OF EQUAL BASIC LIBERTIES,
COMPATIBLE WITH SIMILAR LIBERTIES
FOR OTHERS.
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RAWLS’ THEORY OF JUSTICE
(CONTD.)
• RAWLS’ SECOND PRINCIPLE :
• INEQUALITIES ARE JUSTIFIABLE IF
THEY IMPROVE THE LOT OF THE
LEAST-ADVANTAGED MEMBERS OF
SOCIETY I.E INEQUALITY SHOULD NOT
BE ACHIEVED BY WORSENING THE
POSITION OF THE LEAST
ADVANTAGED (DIFFERENCE
PRINCIPLE)
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ILLUSTRATION OF RAWLS’
SECOND PRINCIPLE
INDIVIDUAL
SITUATION I
SITUATION II
(PREFERRED
SITUATION BY 2ND
PRINCIPLE)
A
8 (40%)
20 (56%)
B
8 (40%)
10 (28%)
C
4 (20%)
5 (14%)
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CRITICISM OF SECOND
(DIFFERENCE) PRINCIPLE
• 1. MAY NOT BE PARETO OPTIMUM
• 2. MAY CONFLICT WITH FIRST
PRINCIPLE. VERY LARGE RELATIVE
WEALTH DIFFERENTIALS MAY MAKE IT
DIFFICULT FOR THE POOR TO BE
ELECTED TO POLITICAL OFFICE
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RAWLS’ THEORY OF JUSTICE
(CONTD)
• RAWLS’ THIRD PRINCIPLE :
• OFFICES AND POSITIONS MUST BE OPEN
TO ALL UNDER CONDITIONS OF FAIR
EQUALITY.
• FAIR EQUALITY ═> OFFICES AND
POSITIONS ARE DISTRIBUTED ON THE
BASIS OF MERIT AND ALL HAVE
REASONABLE OPPORTUNITY TO ACQUIRE
THE SKILLS ON THE BASIS OF WHICH THAT
MERIT IS ASSESSED.
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DESERT-BASED PRINCIPLES OF
DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE
• INTELLECTUAL BASIS :
• ARISTOTLE : VIRTUE SHOULD BE THE
BASIS OF DISTRIBUTION OF
REWARDS IN A SOCIETY
• JOHN LOCKE : INDIVIDUALS SHOULD
BE ENTITLED TO THE FRUITS OF
THEIR OWN LABOUR AND
ABSTINENCE
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DESERT-BASED PRINCIPLES OF
DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE (CONTD.)
• PEOPLE DESERVE CERTAIN ECONOMIC
BENEFITS IN THE LIGHT OF THEIR ACTIONS
• CONTRIBUTION : PEOPLE SHOULD BE
REWARDED FOR THEIR WORK ACCORDING
TO THE VALUE OF THEIR CONTRIBUTION
TO THE SOCIAL PRODUCT (DOCTORS,
TEACHERS ETC. SHOULD BE PAID HIGHER
THAN ARTISTS, LAWYERS ETC.)
• MILLER, DAVID (1989) : MARKET, STATE &
COMMUNITY – CLARENDON PRESS,
OXFORD
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DESERT-BASED PRINCIPLES OF
DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE (CONTD.)
• EFFORT : PEOPLE SHOULD BE REWARDED
ACCORDING TO THE EFFORT THEY EXPEND
IN THEIR WORK ACTIVITY (PHYSICAL
WORKERS, FARMERS ETC. DESERVE
GREATER COMPENSATION THAN POETS,
DRAMATISTS AND STOCKBROKERS )
• MILNE, H. (1986) : JOUR. OF APPLIED
PHILOSOPHY , VOL. 3, P.235-243
• SADURSKI, W. (1985) : GIVING DESERT ITS
DUE (D.REIDEL: DORDRECHT, HOLLAND)
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DESERT-BASED PRINCIPLES
(CONTD.)
• COMPENSATION : PEOPLE SHOULD BE
REWARDED ACCORDING TO THE COSTS
THEY INCUR IN THEIR WORK ACTIVITY
(WORKERS IN SULPHUR-BASED
INDUSTRIES, LAB TECHNICIANS WORKING
WITH RADIO-ACTIVE MATERIAL, FIREMEN,
TRAFFIC POLICEMEN ETC. NEED HIGHER
SALARY AS THEIR WORK INVOLVES
SUBSTANTIAL COSTS AND RISKS TO
HEALTH AND LIFE)
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OTHER THEORIES OF JUSTICE
• 1. LIBERTARIAN THEORY (NOZICK(1974)—
ANARCHY, STATE & UTOPIA, BASIC BOOKS, NY)
• 2. RESOURCES-BASED DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE
(DWORKIN (2000) –SOVEREIGN VIRTUE, HARVARD
UNIV. PRESS)
• 3. FEMINIST THEORIES (MACKINNON (2001)- SEX
EQUALITY , FOUNDATION PRESS, NY)
• 4. THEORY OF ENTITLEMENTS (SEN, A.K.(1982) -POVERTY AND FAMINES : AN ESSAY ON
ENTITLEMENTS AND DEPRIVATION, OXFORD,
CLARENDON PRESS.
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SEN’S ENTITLEMENTS THEORY : BRIEF
DISCUSSION
• 1. INTRODUCED BY SEN (1984) TO
STUDY FAMINES
• 2. A PERSON’S ENTITLEMENT SET IS
THE FULL RANGE OF GOODS &
SERVICES THAT HE CAN ACQUIRE BY
CONVERTING HIS ENDOWMENTS
(ASSETS, RESOURCES, LABOUR
POWER ETC.) THROUGH EXCHANGE
ENTITLEMENT MAPPINGS.
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FOUR CATEGORIES OF
ENTITLEMENTS
• 1. PRODUCTION BASED (GROWING
FOOD)
• 2. TRADE BASED (BUYING FOOD)
• 3. OWN LABOUR BASED (WORKING
FOR FOOD)
• 4. TRANSFER BASED (BEING
DONATED FOOD BY GOVT/NGOs ETC)
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• INDIVIDUAL FACES STARVATION IF
ALL ENTILEMENTS FALL SHORT OF
SUBSISTENCE
• FAMINE RAISES THE POSSIBILITY OF
STARVATION AS IT RESULTS IN
CATASTROPHIC DECLINES IN
PEOPLE’S ENTITLEMENTS
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TWO CAUSES OF FAMINES
• 1. EXCHANGE ENTITLEMENT DECLINE
(RISING FOOD PRICES, FALLING
WAGES)
• 2. FAD (FOOD AVAILABILITY DECLINE)
• SEN LAYS GREATER STRESS ON
FIRST CAUSE
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CRITICISMS
• 1. AMBIGUITIES IN SPECIFICATION OF
ENTITLEMENTS
• 2. ENTITLEMENT RELATIONS
CONCENTRATE ON RIGHTS WITHIN
THE GIVEN LEGAL STRUCTURE BUT
DOES NOT COVER TRANSFERS
OCCURRING DUE TO LOOTING,
BRIGANDAGE ETC
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• 3. ACTUAL FOOD CONSUMPTION MAY FALL
BELOW ENTITLEMENTS DUE TO
IGNORANCE, FIXED FOOD HABITS, APATHY
• 4. NOT ALL FAMINE MORTALITY IS DUE TO
STAVATION –EPIDEMICS ARE AN EQUALLY
IMPORTANT CAUSE
• 5. FAMINES IN AFRICA SEEM TO BE BETTER
EXPLAINED BY FAD THAN ENTITLEMENTS
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ETHICS IN BUSINESS
ORGANIZATIONS
1. MORAL OBLIGATIONS TO
SHAREHOLDERS AND CREDITORS:
PROPER AUDITING & ACCOUNTING
PROCEDURES (DISCLOSURE OF
COSTS AND PROFITS), NO SECRET
BUSINESS OPERATIONS ETC.
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ETHICS IN BUSINESS
ORGANIZATIONS (CONTD.)
• 2. MORAL OBLIGATIONS TO
CUSTOMERS AND CLIENTS :
• FAIR PRICING, QUALITY STANDARDS,
NO DANGEROUS ADULTERATION IN
MEDICINES AND FOOD ITEMS
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ETHICS IN BUSINESS
ORGANIZATIONS (CONTD.)
• 3. MORAL OBLIGATIONS TO
WORKERS :
• MINIMUM WAGES, REASONABLE
WORKING HOURS, HEALTH & SAFETY
CONSIDERATIONS, PROVISION OF
FACILITIES LIKE RECREATION, DAYCARE, COMPENSATION FOR ILLNESS
AND INJURY, POST-RETIREMENT
BENEFITS ETC.
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ETHICS IN BUSINESS
ORGANIZATIONS (CONTD.)
• 4. MORAL OBLIGATIONS TO SOCIETY :
• HIRING MINORITIES, POLLUTION CONTROL,
NOT ENDANGERING GENERAL
POPULATION HEALTH (E.G. CHERNOBYL,
UNION CARBIDE IN BHOPAL ETC.), NOT
ENGAGING IN BUSINESS RELATIONS WITH
CERTAIN COUNTRIES WHICH FLOUT BASIC
HUMAN RIGHTS NORMS (APARTEID IN S.
AFRICA ETC.)
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SOME EXAMPLES
• WORK PRODUCTIVITY CLOSELY LINKED TO
WORKERS' PERCEPTION OF THE
LEGITIMACY OF AUTHORITY AND FAIRNESS
OF DISTRIBUTION (AKERLOF AND YELLEN
(1986))
• ROLE OF TRUST IN GOVERNING WORKEREMPLOYER RELATIONS (MCKEAN (1975))
• CULTURAL FACTORS (JAPAN)
• WORKER PARTICIPATION IN MANAGEMENT
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ETHICS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH
• THE PRIMARY ASSUMPTIONS OF THE
ETHICS IN SOCIAL RESEARCH ARE:
• VOLUNTARY PARTICIPATION
• NO HARM TO SUBJECTS
• INTEGRITY
• PAC: PRIVACY, ANONYMITY AND
CONFIDENTIALITY
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• THANK YOU
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