Transcript The Sociological, Economic, and Ethical Impact of

The Sociological, Economic, and
Ethical Impact of Transgenic
Organisms
Dennis Cooley
Department of History
North Dakota State University
Supported by a USDA/CSREES/IFAFS grant,
“Consortium to Address Social, Economic, and
Ethical Aspects of Biotechnology.”
Introduction to Ethical Theory
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Ethical Theories:
I. Utilitarianism
II. Rights/ Kantianism
III. Justice/ Rawls
IV. Natural Law/Divine Command
V. Relativism
VI. Virtue Ethics
VII. Care Ethics
VIII. A Practical Approach:
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Reasonable Person Utilitarianism
Quasi-Kantianism
The Moral Saint Test
Utilitarianism
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Do the best you can.
(U) An act, A, is ethically right, MR, iff
there is no alternative to A that has greater
utility than A.
Utility =df. The result of subtracting all of
the evil produced by an action from all of
the good produced by the action.
Evil =df. Pain and Good =df. Pleasure.
Problems
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Lack of Time Objection
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Sometimes it is morally wrong to calculate utilities
before we act, but U says to always calculate
utilities before we act.
Problem of Justice
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Sometimes we have to sacrifice one individual to
maximize the utility of the group.
Kantianism
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Universalizability:
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If is it wrong for everyone to do it, then it is wrong for you
to do it.
Reversability:
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If you don’t want it done to you, then do not do it to others.
(CI1) A is MR iff in doing A, the agent does not treat
any person as a mere means.
Treating People as Ends
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Question: What does it mean to not treat a
person as a mere means?
Answer:
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Primarily good intentions
Primarily good motives
Primarily good mental states/attitudes.
Feeling of respect for all individuals involved
Kantianism
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(CI2) A is MR iff in doing A, the agent acts
on a rule autonomously
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An agent acts on a rule autonomously iff the
agent acts primarily because so doing
satisfies some rule the agent has adopted to
govern her conduct.
An agent acts on a rule heteronomously iff
the agent acts primarily to satisfy some desire
the agent has.
Problems
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All acts done primarily out of desire are
morally wrong.
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Love.
All acts done primarily out of duty are
morally right.
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Nazi actions.
Justice
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Retributive
Compensatory
Reward
Distributive =df. Each citizen in a society
receives a fair share of the burdens and
benefits produced by the society in which
she lives.
Distributive Justice
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Egalitarianism =df. Each person receives exactly equal
shares of benefits and burdens with everyone else.
Capitalism =df. Each person receives benefits according
to the contribution that she makes to achieving her
group’s goals.
Libertarianism =df. Each person receives benefits
according to what she takes out of a state of nature, is
freely given, or for which she freely contracts. Burdens
are distributed according to what each person freely
accepts.
Socialism/Marxism =df. Benefits are distributed
according to need, while burdens are distributed
according to ability.
Rawls’ Theory
Stipulations:
1. Each human being is rationally self-interested.
2. Each human being is enveloped in a veil of ignorance, which keeps
them from knowing anything personal about themselves.
3. Agreement on the code must be unanimous.
4. Because agreement on the code must be unanimous, the rules will be
very general so that no one will refuse any of the contract’s terms.
5. Each person will know that he will be held to the code forever. No-one
will be able to change the code at any time.
6. The code will be made up of consistent rules.
Rawls’ Theory of Justice
1. Each person will agree to the most extensive set of
liberties for themselves that is consistent with the
same set of liberties for all.
2. The benefits and burdens of society will be
distributed so that:
a. they are to the greatest benefit of the
worst off, and
b. The offices with greatest benefit will be open
to fair competition for all.
Problems
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Who signs the contract?
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People do not act in their rational selfinterest.
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Why should we assume that this system
will produce the best results?
Natural Law Theory
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Whatever is natural is good or right.
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Whatever is unnatural is bad or wrong.
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The more unnatural something becomes,
the worse it is.
The more natural something becomes, the
better it is.
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Problems
1. X is unnatural =Df. X’s existence violates the
descriptive laws of nature.
2. X is unnatural =Df. X is an artificial or man-made.
3. X an unnatural =Df. X is an uncommon or
abnormal.
4. X is unnatural =Df. X is an object that results from
using an organ or instrument contrary to its principal
purpose or function.
5. X is unnatural =Df. X’s existence is morally bad.
(Leiser, pp. 165-173)
Divine Command Theory
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(DCT) A is morally right iff God
commands A,
A is morally wrong iff God forbids A, and
A is morally neutral iff God neither
commands nor forbids A.
What should we do?
1. Thou shalt not have any God before me.
2. Thou shall not have false idols.
3. Thou shall keep the Sabbath holy.
4. Thou shalt not take the Lord’s name in vain.
5. Thou shall honor thy mother and father.
6. Thou shalt not kill.
7. Thou shalt not steal.
8. Thou shalt not commit adultery.
9. Thou shalt not lie.
10. Thou shalt not covet thy neighbor’s:
A. House,
B. Wife,
C. Male servant,
D. Female servant,
E. Ox,
F. Ass, or
G. Anything of thy neighbor’s.
Problems
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Have we found the correct moral rules?
There seems to be a change over from Old
to New Testament.
Have we found the correct religion?
Can we ever know with any form of
certainty which religion, if any, is the
correct one?
Relativism
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Individual Relativism
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Existentialism
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(IR) A is MR iff the agent believes A to be ethically right
according to his individual ethical code.
(E) A is MR iff A is something that a good X would do,
where X is the person that the agent has chosen to be.
Conventionalism
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(C ) A is MR iff in doing A the agent does not violate any of
the conventions of the society in which A would be done.
Problems
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IR
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Since there is no objective morality, everything is moral as
long as the agent believes it is moral.
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Since there is no objective morality, everything is moral as
long as it is required by the agent’s life style choices.
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Since there is no objective morality, any convention a
society has is moral.
E
C
Virtue Ethics
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Aristotle
(Good Life) L is the good life for S iff S develops
and uses her theoretical reasoning ability to a great
extent in L.
 Problem: Isn’t it possible to have a virtuous life
without doing this?
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VE
(VE) S is a virtuous person iff S’s character has
more virtues than vices.
 Problem: Virtuous person’s do wrong actions.
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Virtue Ethics
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VEAT
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(VEAT) A is morally permissible (MP) iff in the
same situation, A would be done by a virtuous
person acting as a virtuous person.
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Problem: What does it mean to act as a virtuous
person?
A Practical Theory
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Reasonable Person Utilitarianism (Do the best you
can.):
An act is morally right only if a reasonable person would
reasonably believe that the utility of the consequences of
the act will probably be as great as any alternative to the
action at that time.
Quasi-Categorical Imperative (If you do not want it
done to you, then do not do it to anyone else AND if it is
wrong for everyone to do it, then it is wrong for you to do
it):
An act is morally right only if in doing the act, the agent
does not treat anyone as a mere means.
The Moral Paradigm Test
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Think of an actual person who you would like to emulate.
Eliminate the person’s vices.
In your mind, tell the person what you think is the correct
solution to moral dilemma. The correct solution must be
one that you would do if you were faced with the choice.
If your paradigm would not lose some respect for you,
then you know that you probably have selected the correct
solution.
If your paradigm would lose some respect for you, then
you know that you probably have selected the wrong
solution.
Decision Making
1. Find all of the relevant moral factors or evidence.
a. Who is affected by the action?
b. How are those people affected?
c. Which alternative is likely to be the best?
d. Are the mental states, including but not limited to intentions and motives, of the
agent(s) performing the actions primarily good?
2. Apply RPU and QCI to the situation.
This will require that you examine the moral factors so that you can do a cost benefit
analysis for RPU and determine whether or not anyone is treated as a mere means.
3. Draw a conclusion using the material from A and B.
4. Test C’s conclusion with the Moral Paradigm Test.
5. If there seems to be a problem, then return to A and try again.
Either there is a moral factor that you have not considered or you have not used RPU
and QCI correctly. See if you gave improper weight to one of the moral factors for
RPU or did not correctly classify how someone affected by the action is treated.
Case Study
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Pharmaceutical companies now use genetic engineering to
produce large quantities of insulin for diabetics around the
world. The common Escherichia coli (E. coli) bacteria is
used to produce insulin. Using recombinant DNA
(glossary id 27) technology, the gene for producing
insulin is inserted into the E. coli's genetic material. These
genetically engineered bacteria are turned into tiny insulin
producing factories.
http://www3.iptv.org/exploremore/ge/uses/use2_medical.c
fm#
Applying the Theory
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Artificial Insulin
- Ethical
- RPU – Many people are benefited with
none harmed.
- QCI – No one is treated as a mere means.
Moral Issues For Transgenic
Organisms (1)
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Given the state of the world-abundant food supply, etc.-should we fund research in technology for
transgenics instead of funding research for current problems, such as AIDS, malaria or tuberculosis
in the Developing World, etc.
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Is there anything inherently morally wrong with creating or developing GMO’s?
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How should we incorporate GMO’s into the system? Ought there to be a Free Market approach or
some sort of regulation? Which leads us to ask how much regulation is ethical and how should it be
done?
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Is there a moral difference between transgenic plants and transgenic animals? Is it sufficient to
justify different moral obligations to each in regards to GMO’s? How many genes from an animal
does it take to make a plant not a plant and vice versa?
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Is there a moral difference between transgenic organisms used for medical purposes and those used
for agricultural needs, such as cattle feed?
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Should GMO’s be labeled?
Moral Issues For Transgenic
Organisms
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Should we incorporate all GMO’s into agriculture or only certain ones approved on a case by case
basis? Which ones should be adopted? What level of risk or benefit is morally acceptable?
Moral factors to consider before answering this question. Transgenics might:
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interfere with natural selection,
pose a health risk/benefit to animals,
pose a health risk/benefit to people-the value changes according to the emotional distance from the
evaluator-self, family, friends, associates, community, nation, strangers,
pose a risk/benefit to the environment, including plants,
pose a risk/benefit to the survival of small farmers,
pose a risk/benefit to corporate farmers,
pose a risk/benefit to the farm economy,
pose a risk/benefit to the economy of communities, states, countries, the world,
pose a risk/benefit to a seed company,
pose a risk/benefit to science and the researchers,
pose a risk/benefit to the integrity of public institutions, such as NDSU,
overcome problems with natural selection
create/control harmful pests or diseases,
limit/promote freedom, choice, autonomy of consumers, farmers, etc., or
reduce/maintain/further the developed world’s control over resources that the developing world does not
have?
Developing a Case Study
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Fill in the relevant information from the
final question in the handouts
Find all of the relevant moral factors in the
material.
 Using the decision procedure, try to come up with
any additional relevant information.
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Determine what information is lacking.
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Note what cannot be found.
Writing a Case Study
Write a paragraph explaining the situation.
Give the relevant details that you think
anyone should know at this stage.
 Ask a question. (Could apply a theory.)
 Provide additional information.
 Ask the same or a different question.
***Remember that the aim is to generate
critical thought and discussion.
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Please turn in the following:
1.
2.
The case study
The list of relevant information.
Supported by a USDA/CSREES/IFAFS grant,
“Consortium to Address Social, Economic,
and Ethical Aspects of Biotechnology.”