Transcript Non consequentialism

Chapter 4
The Power of Moral Theories
Moral theory
• What makes an action right? What makes a
person or a thing good?
• What is the difference between a moral
theory and a moral code?
• Consequentialist
• Non consequentialist
The Ethics of Utility
The Utilitarian Theory :
First, actions are to be judged right or wrong solely in
virtue of their consequences. Nothing else matters. Right
actions are, simply, those that have the best
consequences.
Second, in assessing consequences, the only thing that
matters is the amount of happiness or unhappiness that is
caused. Everything else is irrelevant. Thus right actions
are those that produce the greatest balance of happiness
over unhappiness.
The Ethics of Utility
Third, in calculating the happiness or unhappiness that
will be caused, no one’s happiness is to be counted as
more important than anyone else’s. Each person ‘s
welfare is equally important. As Mill wrote in his short
work entitled,Utilitarianism,
”the happiness which forms the utilitarian standard of
what is right in conduct, is not the agent’s own happiness,
but that of all concerned. As between his own happiness
and that of others, utilitarianism requires him to be as
strictly impartial as a disinterested and benevolent
spectator.”
What is the difference between act utilitarianism and rule
utilitarianism?
The Ethics of Utility
Utilitarians have different conceptions of intrinsic good:
For most utilitarians, maximizing intrinsic good means
maximizing happiness. We should always do what we
can to maximize the overall happiness in the world. This
is called hedonistic utilitarianism.
Some utilitarians maintain that other things such as
knowledge and integrity are intrinsically good. This is
called ideal utilitarianism.
Ethical Egoism
• Which ethical theory says that we ought to do
what is ever in our best interest, and that
others ought to do what is in their best
interest?
• How is this justified?
• What is the difference between psychological
egoism and ethical egoism?
Natural Law
• The theory of natural law has three main
parts:
– 1. The Theory of Natural Law rests upon a
certain view of what the world is like. This
view holds that the world has a rational
purpose built into nature. Everything in nature
has a purpose.
2. The “Laws of Nature” not only describe how
things are but how they ought to be as well.
3. We can grasp the “Laws of Nature” because
God has made us rational creatures.
Natural Law
• Criticisms of natural law:
– What makes something “unnatural?” Hearing
aids are not found in nature. Diseases are
found in nature: cures are unnatural because
they are discovered by humans?
– Is being natural always good?
Divine Command Theory
• Ultimately, saved by faith and not by good deeds.
• If God says something is good, then it is good.
• We are put on this earth to obey God’s commands.
• Rewards are not on earth – reward is eternal life in heaven.
Though, pleasure may be found in the sheer joy of pleasing
God.
• First Commandment, “Thou shalt love the Lord thy God,
with all thy heart, all thy mind, and all thy strength.”
Religious Ethics
• There are arguments for & against religious
ethics:
Advantage of Religion: Provides sanctions.
Criticism: Sanctions are too remote.
• Advantage: Faith in God is the center of a
Christian’s life.
• Criticism: Social utility should be number 1 for a
moral person, not incidental to following God’s
word. Time spent in church could be time spent
feeding the poor, for example.
Religious Ethics
• Criticism: Religious dogma can lead to tragedy,
such as the Spanish Inquisition.
– Also, religious dogma can stifle inquiring minds.
• Reply to criticism: Fallible human beings are to
blame for these tragedies, not religion
properly understood.
Religious Ethics
• Criticism: Consistent Christians should believe
their God is the answer. Thus they should try
to convert others in order to save them from
eternal damnation.
• Answer: Christianity has mellowed since then.
Christians now work effectively with Muslims
and Jews.
Religious Ethics
• Advantage: Religion has good uses.
• Criticism: Do we teach people to believe in a
certain religion because it is useful or because it is
true?
• Pascal’s wager. Is this anything more than an
appeal to force?
• Russell: “How do you know that there isn’t a God
who respects intellectual honesty, and basing
one’s beliefs on evidence rather than faith, so
much that he will throw into hell anyone who
adheres to a religion just to be on the winning
side?
Religious Ethics
• Euthyphro
– Is an act right independently of God’s
command?
Kantian Ethics
• 2nd Commandment: Love thy neighbor as thyself.
– What does this mean? Should you love the entire
human race equally? Even child molesters and serial
killers?
– Should you love everyone as much as you love your
own family?
– What if you are working on a project and some remote
acquaintance is hungry and needs food? Should you
drive a half day to feed him/her? Should you do this for
everyone? Do you rally have to “sell all thou hast and
give to the poor?” Then you will be poor and forced to
rely on the possible charity of others.
– Golden rule can be problematic because of different
strokes for different folks.
Kantian Ethics
• 2nd Commandment: Love thy neighbor as thyself.
– What does this mean? Should you love the entire
human race equally? Even child molesters and serial
killers?
– Should you love everyone as much as you love your
own family?
– What if you are working on a project and some remote
acquaintance is hungry and needs food? Should you
drive a half day to feed him/her? Should you do this for
everyone? Do you rally have to “sell all thou hast and
give to the poor?” Then you will be poor and forced to
rely on the possible charity of others.
– Kant said we should follow universal moral laws.
Kantian Ethics
• Kant’s Theory of Duty
– Animals act from inclination.
– Only human beings are capable of acting on
principle.
– Feelings and attitudes differ from person to
person. However, reason is universal. If A is
larger than B, and B is larger that C than A is
larger than C universally. Every rational person
would have to agree with this conclusion.
Kantian Ethics
• A hypothetical imperative is different than a categorical
imperative.
• The Categorical Imperative: Act only according to that maxim
by which you can at the same time will that it should become
a universal law.
• Charity and Payment of debts are Kant’s examples.
• Deontological ethics holds that the rightness of an act is
derived from its logical consistence and universalizability.
• the character of the act itself rather than the consequences
is what matters
• the character of the act itself is determined by it’s maxim.
• Case of murderer looking for friend and Kant’s response.
• Critics ask why there can’t be exceptions and qualifications.