Transcript form2-agr-ppt-notes

AGRICULTURE
Form 2
Notes by OnyangoNgoye Updated July 2013
Contents
Unit One: Soil Fertility
Unit Two: Crop Production planting)
Unit Three: Crop Production III (Nursery Practices)
Unit Four: Crop Production IV (Field Practices)
Unit Five: Crop Production V (Vegetable Crops)
Unit Six: Livestock Health I (Introduction to livestock health)
Unit Seven: Livestock health II (Parasites)
Unit Eight: Livestock Production II (Nutrition)
UNIT ONE
SOIL FERTILITY
Inorganic Fertilizers
Specific Objectives
By the end of this topic, the learner should be able to:
List the essential elements
Classify the essential elements
State the role of each macronutrients and micronutrients
Describe the deficiency symptoms of the macronutrients and micronutrients.
Identify and classify fertilizers
Describe the properties of various fertilizers
Describe soil sampling and testing procedures use appropriate methods of fertilizer application
Calculate fertilizer application rates
Explain how soil acidity and alkalinity affect crop production
CLASSIFICATION OF ESSENTIALS NUTRIENTS
Macro-nutrients
These are required by the plant in relatively large quantities e.g. Carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, Calcium, Magnesium and Sulphur.
Micro-nutrients
These are required by the plants in relatively small quantities e.g Boron, Manganese,
zinc, Molybdenum, iron, copper and chlorine.
Fertilizer Elements Primary Macro-nutrients ;
These form the main component of common fertilizers e.g. Nitrogen, potassium and
Phosphorous.
They are required by the plants in relatively higher quantities that other Macronutrients.
Liming elements
These are nutrients that have a liming effect when applied in the soil e.g. Sulphur,
calcium and Magnesium.
ELEMENT AND FORM OF
ABSORPTION
1.NITROGEN(N)N02-
ROLES IN PLANT GROWTH
DEFFICIENCY SIGNS
MACRO NUTRIENTS
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(Nitrate Ion)NH4+
Component of the protein
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molecules
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Chlorosis starting with older
leaves.
Consistent of the
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Pre-mature leaves fall
chlorophy/Molecule.
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Formation of anthocyamin
Increase size of grains cereals
pigments
Increase succulency in crops.
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Stunted growth
Influence the availability of
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Premature ripening of fruits.
phosphorous and potassium.
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Poor root development
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Root development
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Stunted growth
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Important in cell division.
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Phosphorous(p)
Monovalent Phosphate
Divalent Phosphate.
Component of some protein molecules
Needed in various metabolic processes
Stimulate formation of nodules in
legumes
Increase diseases
Dormancy of lateral buds
Formation of anthocyaruin pigments.
Premature leaves fall.
Tubers formed are small.
3. POTASSIUM(k) –K+
(Potassium ion)
resistance in crops
Strengthens plants Stems especially
cereals.
Aids in translocation
Strengthens plants stems.
A component of the chlorophyll
molecule.
Neutralization of organic acids in
plants.
Regulates uptake of Nitrogen and
phosphorous
Lodging in crops.
In crops.
Margin/leaf-tip chlorosis
Curling of leaves.
Premature leaf fall
Stunted growth
Leave necrosis
Poor seed development
4. SULPHUR(S)-Sulphate ion(SO4-)
A Component of S- containing amino
acids.
Needed information of plant hormones
Formation and activation of Co-enzymes
Essentials in formation of certain
Vitamins.
5. MAGNESIUM(mg)- Magnesium
ion(mg2+)
A component of the Chlorophyll
molecules
Reduced nodule formation
Stunted growth.
Formation of anthocyanin
Weak steins leading to lodging.
Promotes growth of soil bacteria
Improves ability of legumes to fix
nitrogen.
Required in soil synthesis in oil crops.
Improve soil structure.
Lowers acidity in the soil.
Strengthens the plants call wall.
Needed in all division.
Necessary in protein synthesis.
MICRO-NUTRIENTS
1.BORON(B) –Borate ion
BO-4
Needed in sugar
translocation.
Important in the utilization
of calcium in plants.
Aids in fruit development
Aids in translocation of
nitrogen and phosphorous.
Stunted growth
Reduced seed/grain formation
Floral abortion
Poor pollination
Needed in the absorption of
water by the roots
2.COPPER(CU)-Copper
ions(CU2+)
Needed in redox reactions.
Necessary in respiration and
Photsynthesis.
Aids in utilization of iron
Needed in Vitamin A
synthesis.
Needed in protein.
Stunted growth
Die-back of stems and twigs
Chrolosis pale green leaves
that wilt easily.
3.MOLYBDENUM(Mb)Molybdenate ion MbO-4
Essential in certain Nitrogen
metabolism.
Essential in Nitrogen and
fixation by bacteria
Play an important role in
redox reactions
Needed in pollen grains
formation.
Marginal chrolosis
Irregular leaf blade/whiptail
Inter-veinal mottling
4. IRON(Fe)-IRON ion(Fe2+)
Plays an important role in
redox reactions.
Chlorosis is younger upper
leaves.
Browing of leaves.
Death of the leaves.
Needed in Chlorophyll
A component of enzymes
associated with lignin
formation
Needed information of
plant catalysts.
5. ZINC(Zn)Zinc ion(Zn2+)
An essential component of
protein synthesis.
Essential component of
respiratory enzymes.
Needed information of
growth hormones.
Influence availability of
iron and mandanese
Necessary in reproduction
in plants
Delayed maturity
Short-internodes
Reduced leaf size
INORGANIC FERTILIZERS
• These are commercially prepared substances added into the soil to supply one or
more nutrients.
CLASSIFICATION OF INORGANIC FERTILIZERS
• They are classified using the following criteria.
• Nutrient Composition.
• Straight fertilizers-have only one of the primary macro-nutrients either Nitrogen,
Potassium or phosphorous.
• Compound Fertilizers –They contain more than on of three primary
macronutrients.
THEY ARE FURTHER PUT INTO TWO GROUPS NAMELY:
• Complete co8mpound fertilizers: These contains all the three primary
macronutrients.
• Incomplete Compound fertilizers:-These contains only two of the primary macro
nutrients.
• Effects on the soil PH
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Acidic fertilizers –Lowers the soil PH if applied continuously.
Basic fertilizers; Raises the soil PH if applied continuously.
Neutral Fertilizers; they have no effect on the soil PH.
Stage of Crop growth when applied.
Planting fertilizers –Applied at planting time .e.g.
Phosphatic fertilizer.
Top dressing fertilizers –Applied in already established
crops.e.g Nitrogenous fertilizers.
Mode of application
Foliar feed
Broadcasting fertilizers
Fertigation fertilizers
Methods of Fertilizer application
•Fertigation
•Broadcasting
•Foliar spray
•Hole placement
•Side/basal placement
Soil Sampling
Practice of collecting a representative sample of soil from the field for purpose of
analysis.
Methods used
-Traverse/Diagonal Sampling
-Zigzag/Random Sampling
Sites to avoid in soil sampling
•Dead furrows
•Under trees
•Swampy areas
•Old manure heaps site
•Near a hedge
•Terrace stand
Soil Testing
This is the analysis of the soil sample to determine its e.g.
Soil PH
Nutrient status
Soil type
Methods of testing soil PH
Use of colour indicator dyes
Use of PH meter
Importance of Soil PH in crop production
Influences the type of crop to be grown.
Influences the availability of some nutrients to crops
Influences the activity of soil micro organisms
Determines the presence of certain pests in the soil
Determines the type of fertilizer to apply
UNIT TWO
CROP PRODUCTION II
(Planting)
Specific objectives
By the end of the topic the learner should be able to :State the correct planting materials for various crops.
Select and prepare planting materials.
Determine the optimum time of planting
State the factors which determine the depth of
planting.
Describe the planting procedures of different crops
State the factors that influence seed rate, spacing and
plant population
Calculate plant population
PLANTING
This is the placement of any part into the soil for it to develop into a new
plant.
Planting materials
There are two types of planting materials:Seeds
Vegetative materials.e.gBulbils, Tubers, bulbs, splits, crown, suckers, slips etc.
Use of Seeds versus vegetative
materials
SELECTION OF PLANTING MATERIALS
They should be healthy
They should be suitable to the ecology of the area.
Be disease resistant.
From high yielding mother plants.
Seeds should be of high germination percentage.
Seed should be of high degree of purity.
Seeds should be true to type.
Seeds should be the right size.
Seed should be mature.
Should be free from physical damage.
Practices carried out on planning materials in readiness for planting
Breaking seed dormancy; enhances faster germination. Methods used
includes.
Mechanical
Use of chemicals
Partial burning
How water treatment.
Seed cleaning-This improves purity by removing weed seeds, chaff an
d off type seeds
Seed dressing; coating of the seeds with fungicides and or insecticides.
Protect the seeds from soil borne pests and diseases.
Seed inoculation; coating leguminous seeds with the right strain of
rhizobium bacteria.
Boosts Nitrogen fixation
Chitting;This is breaking dormancy in Irish potato tubers;Involves
spreading the”seed”in diffuse light; appropriate chemicals may also
be used.
Ensures uniform sprouting of the tubers
Methods of planting
Broadcasting
Row Planting
Oversowing
Undersowing
Row Planting Versus Broadcasting
Factors that influence spacing
Spacing is the distance from one plant to the other either within or between the vows
•Number of seeds planted per hole.
•Level of nutrients in the soil.
•Amount of rainfall in the area.
•Intended use of the crop.
•Intention to use machines for subsequent operations
•Growth habit/Variety of the crop.
•Crop Stand.
Timely planting is influenced by:
•Rainfall reliability/Onset of the rain.
•Market demand of the crop.
•Incidence of pests and diseases
•Desired weather conditions at harvesting time.
Advantages of timely Planting
•Crops are able to complete with weeds effectively.
•The crop benefits from nitrogen flush.
•They are able to evade serious attack by pests/diseases
•Crop make maximum use of available rainfall.
•Crop may fetch good market price.
•Give the farmer adequate time for preparing the seedbed for the next season.
Plant Population and seedrate
Plant population in the number of plants per unit area.
Optimum plant population is the number plants per unit area without competition
Plant Population=Area of the Seedbed
Crop spacing
Optimum plant population is achieved by following the recommended spacing for the
particular crop.
Seedrate is the quantity of seed planted per unit are: Expresed in kg/ha.Seedrate of a
particular crop is determined by:Number of seeds per hole.
Spacing of the crop
Purpose of the crop
Germination percentage of the seeds
Degree of seed purity.
Soil nutrient level
Amount of rainfall in the area
Size of the seeds.
•Depth of planting is influenced by:Size of the seeds, the bigger the seeds the deeper they are
planted.
•Soil moisture content: seeds are placed deeply in dry.
Soils than in moist soils.
•Soil type; seeds are placed deeply in light soils than in heavy
soils.
•Type of germination; Hypogeal germination e.g. maize are
placed deeper than epigeal germination in beans.
UNIT THREE
CROP PRODUCTION III
NURSERY PRCATICES
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:Describe a nursery bed
Distinguish between a nursery bed, seedling bed and seed bed.
State the importance of a nursery bed.
Select a suitable site for a nursery bed.
Prepare a nursery bed.
Establish a nursery bed.
Manage a nursery bed.
Transplant crops from a nursery bed.
Bud a seedling
Explain the importance of grafting, budding, layering and tissue culture.
Describe damage caused by animal on tree seedlings and how to prevent it.
Definitions
Nursery bed; this is a small unit of land prepared to receive planting materials that are
later seedlings to the main field.
Seedling bed; this is a small unit of land that receives seedlings pricked out from an
overcrowded nursery bed and later are transplanted to the main field
Seedbed; This is a piece of land where crops are established until they are harvested.
Importance of Nursery beds
It is easy to take care of seedlings when concentrated in a small area.
A large number of planting materials are developed in a small area.
The farmer can be able to select only the strong and health seedlings for planting.
Seedlings take a shorter period of time in the field.
Seedrate used is lower than direct planting.
The farmer can sell extra seedlings to earn income.
It is easy to provide condusive conditions for the growth of weak seedlings in a nursery
bed.
Weak seedlings are given a chance to first become strong before they can be planted
in the field.
•Harrow to attain right tilth
•Remove stones an d trash
•Ensure nursery bed does not exceed 1.5 m wide
•Level the nursery bed
Nursery bed establishment
Make shallow drills across the nursery bed.
The distance from on drill to the other should be between 10-15cm
Sprinkle a phosphatic fertilizer in the drills
Sprinkle some insecticide in the drills
Mix the fertilizer/pesticide thoroughly with the soil.
Drill the seeds in the drills
Cover the seeds with a thin layer of soil
Apply a thin mulch
Water the nursery bed thoroughly.
Nursery bed Management practices
Carry out watering thoroughly and regularly
When the seed start to sprout ,remove the mulch, provide some shade
Control weeds by uprooting
Control pests /Diseases using appropriate methods
Thin out/prick out the overcrowded seedlings
Harden off the seedlings 1-2 weeks before transplanting
2. Unique practices in tree seedling nursery beds
- Deep tillage
Seed s may require pre-germination
Seeds are usually pricked out in polythene sleeves/seed boxes.
Root pruning in done to ease transplanting and to ensure short strong roots .
3. Vegetative Propagation Nursery bed.
- This is used to raise special vegetative materials that cannot be established directly.e.g Tea
cuttings
Procedures of establishing a Tea Nursery Bed
Fill polythene sleeves with appropriate rooting medium.
Mark the nursery site.
Clear the nursery area.
Arrange the polythene sleeves in the nursery site.
Obtain appropriate tea cuttings.
Water the rooting medium in the polythene at the centre of the sleeve.
Ensure the leaf of the cutting does not come into contact with the soil.
Erect wooden hoops over the nursery are.
Cover the edges of the polythene sheet into the soil.
Erect a shad e over the polythene sheet tent
Preparation of tea cuttings
Selection of mother plant
High yielding
High rooting ability
High leaf quality
Easily adapt to different ecology
The selected mother plants are left to grow unchecked for 6 months.
Select shoots from the mother plant where to get the tea cuttings
Obtain cuttings from the middle part of the selected shoot/branch
Use a sharp knife to obtain the cuttings
Make a slanted cut slightly above the lateral bud
The cutting must have a leaf and a bud.
Place the cuttings in water awaiting planting prevent dehydration.
• Advantages of using polythene sleeves
• Easy to transport the seedlings
• Less root damage during transplanting
• Easy to control soil borne pests/disease s
• Seedlings can easily be stored awaiting favorable conditions for transplanting.
Transplanting
• This is the transfer of seedlings from the nursery bed to the seed bed.
• Vegetable seedlings
• Carried out when the weather is cool.
• Done when seedlings are 4-5 weeks old.
• One should select only the strong and health seedlings.
• Water the nursery bed thoroughly before transplanting.
• Lift seedlings carefully/Use a garden trowel.
• Apply phosphatic fertilizer in the planting hole.
• Apply an insecticide in the planting hole.
• Place seedling to the same depth as it was in the nursery bed.
• Press the soil around the base of the seedling.
• Apply a thin mulch around the base of the seedling.
• Water the seedling thoroughly.
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Tree seedlings
Don e at the onset of the rains.
Carried out when seedlings are6-12 months
Slit open the polythene sleeves using a knife
Place the seedling at the centre of the hole.
Fill the hole with a mixture of top soil and organic manure.
Cover the seedling to the same depth as it was in the
nursery bed.
• Firm the soil at the base of the seedling.
• Mulch the base of the seedling.
• Water the seedling thoroughly.
Tree seedling protection
Protect the seedling against damage by:• Strong wind
• Animals
• Direct sun rays
Budding and Grafting
• Budding: This is the practice of joining a vegetable bud to a growing plant.
• Grafting is the practice of joining two separate woody stems to grow as one plant.
Methods of Budding
• T-budding either- Upright T-budding
• Inverted T-budding
• Top budding
• Patch budding
Methods of grafting
• Whip and tongue grafting
• Notch and wedge grafting
• Cleft grafting
• Approach grafting
• Side grafting
Importance of grafting/budding
• It is possible to get more than on variety of the same crop from the same rootstock.
• Plants mature early.
• Allows propagation of crops that cannot be propagated otherwise
• Enables one to change an undesirable top of a plant with a desirable one.
• Used to repair damaged or broken plants
• Budding of oranges are less thorny.
• Plants have desirable shapes and size easy to carry out management practices.
• Allows the farmer to make maximum use of root stocks with desirable characteristics but with
undesirable top.
Layering
• This is the practice of inducing a branch of a plant to
produce roots at a point while still attached to the
mother plant.
Methods of Layering
• Marcotting /Aerial layering
• Tip layering
• Compound layering ,practiced under
Trench layering
• Mound/Stool layering
• Serpentine Layering.
UNIT FOUR
CROP PRODUCTION IV
FIELD PRACTICES
Specific objectives
• By the end of the topic, the learner should be able to:
• Define crop rotation
• State the importance of crop
• Draw a crop rotation programme
• Distinguish terms used in crop farming
• State the importance of mulching
• Describe the importance of various routine field
practices in crop production.
• Carry out field practices
• State the correct stage of harvesting various crops.
• Describe harvesting practices for various crops.
• CROP ROTATION
• This is the practice of growing different crops on the
same piece of land at the same time following a
definite order.
Importance of Crop rotation.
• Controls build up of soil borne pests and diseases.
• Improves the soil structure by including a fallow crop.
• Control soil erosion.
• Improves soil fertility when legumes are included
• Help to control weeds
• Makes maximum use of crop nutrients.
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Guidelines for establishment of a crop rotation programme
Crops that take a lot of nutrients should appear first in the cycle.
Deep rooted crops should be followed by shallow rooted crops.
Closely related crops should not follow one another in the cycle.
Where possible, always include a leguminous crop.
Crops that are easy to weed should be alternates with those difficult to weed.
Crops that provide a good soil cover should be succeeded by those that have
poor soil cover.
• Leave the land fallow for one season.
Common terms used in crop production
• Monocropping /monoculture :this is the growing of one type of crop in a piece of
land
• Mixed cropping; practice of growing different types of crops on the same piece
of land at the same time each crops on its own.
• Inter-cropping: Practice of growing different types of crops on the same piece of
land at the same time in a mixed stand.
Mulching
• Types of Mulch:• Organic mulch: originate from plant remains.
• Inorganic mulch: use of synthetic material.e.g Polythene sheets.
Advantages of Mulching
• Control weeds by smoothening them
• Control soil erosion
• Conserves soil moisture by reducing evaporation.
• Improves water infiltration by reducing speed of run off.
• Moderates the soil temperature
• Releases plant nutrients after it has decomposed
• Control pest attack in some crops.
• Improves the soil structure after decomposition.
• Organic mulch serves as food and shelter of soil-micro organics.
• Buffer the soil PH, upon decomposition.
Disadvantages of Mulching
• Organic mulch may be difficult to get in some areas
• Inorganic mulch is expensive
• It may be a fire risk.
• May be a source of weed seeds
• May provide a breeding ground for soil pests
• Organic mulch may prevent water from light showers from reaching the soil.
Field practices
• Any practice carried out on a crop as it grows in the field. They may include:• Gapping
• Thinning
• Rougueing
• Training/Trelising
• Propping
• Weeding
• Pests and disease control
• Staking
• Earthing up
• Prunning
Pruning –Removal of some plant parts
• Importance of pruning
• Control crop pests/diseases
• Improve aeration in the plant
• Increases light intensity in the plant.
• Economics on chemical sprays/eases spray
penetration.
• Ensure plant grow s into the desired shape/size
• Improves quality of the produce.
Pruning in tea
There are two methods of frame formation.
• Formative pruning
• Pegging
Terms used
• Tipping-This is pinching –off 3 leaves an d a bud from all shoots
that grow above the required height
• Pegging :-Use of wooden pegs to hold the branches in position.
Maintenance Pruning:-Practice of cutting back the tea bush to 5cm
above the previous pruning height
Done every 2-5 years
It is used to check the height of the tea bush
Rehabilitation:-involve cutting the tea bush to 45 cm above the ground
after a period of 45years.
Factors to consider when pruning mature tea.
• Plucking table should always be parallel to the ground
• Use sharp pruning g knife
• Make straight cuts across the stem rather than long slanted cuts
• Leave the pruning on the ground to add the soul nutrients
• When pruning on a hot weather leave some of the pruning are laid
on top of the pruned bush
• Do not cut/prune side branches growing below the pruning height.
• Pruning in coffee
• There are two pruning systems in coffee
Single-Stem pruning where each plant has one permanent stem.
The stem has a strong frame work of primary, secondary and tertiary
branches.
Multiple stem pruning
• Where each plant has two or more main stems at different stages of
growth
• Each stem may or may not have a bearing head.
• Single stem versus multiple stem pruning
Single stem
• Require more specialized skills
• Less laborious
• Slow, brings coffee into bearing late
• Easy to mechanise field practices e.g. spraying
• Breakages of stems and branches
• Leads to accumulation of disease on the stump e.g coffee Berry Disease
(CBD)
• Low yielding within the first few years
Multiple stem
• Requires less skills
• More laborious
• Fast, bring coffee into bearing early
• Difficult mechanise
• Breakages of stems and branches more common
• Diseases do not accumulate due to regular changing of cycle.
• High yielding within the first few years.
Maintenance pruning g in coffee
• Desuckening :-Remove of extra suckers from the coffee stump/stems
• Prune broken branches
• Prune dead branches
• Prune branches touching the ground /with undesirable growth.
• Prune old laterals (in multiple stem pruning only)
Terms used
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Capping-Prcatise of cutting the terminal bud of a growing coffee seedling.
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De-suckering –Practice of removing youn g shoots /suckesr from a coffee stump/stesm.
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Changing thecycle ;practise of replacing old coffee stems with specially selected suckers.
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Pruning in Bananas
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Maintain 3-6 stems per stool
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Remove extra suckesr at the rhizome level aws soon as they appear
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Remove dry/infected leaves
Pruning in Pyrethrum
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Remove the old dry stems down to the level of top foliage
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Done at the end of the cropping year
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Done to:•
Encourage fresh
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Increase yield in the following season
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Reduce incidence of bud disease
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Harvesting
Stage of harvesting is influenced by:•
Market condition s
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Intended use of the crop
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Weather conditions in the area.
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Incidence of pest/disease attack
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Concentration of the required chemicals
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Post-Harvesting practices
Drying
Cleaning
Sorting and grading
Dusting
Packaging
Storage
Threshing
Storage; Importance
Prevent wastage of produce
Conserves the produce for use in time of scarcity
Reduce price fluctuation
Avails seeds for planting in subsequent seasons
Helps to await good market prices.
Features of an ideal granary
• -Leak proof
• - Rodent proof
• - Spacious
• - Provides adequate security
• - Easy to load and off- load
• - Easy to clean
• - Well ventilated
Preparation of the granary for storage
• Clear the vegetation around the store
• Clean the store
• Dust the store with appropriate pesticides absorption from the
floor.
UNIT FIVE
CROP PRODUCTION V
VEGETABLE CROPS
Cabbages-Brassica olerace(variety capitata)
• Varieties
• Early maturing varieties
• e.g sugar loaf, copenhagen market, main crop, Early jersey.
• Late maturity varieties
• e.g Gloria F, Hybrid ,Savoy perfection ,Mammoth red rock.
Ecology
• Rainfall: 750mm-2000mm p.a
• Altitude: 900m-2800mm p.a
• Temperature:- 130c- 210 c
• SOIL Ph:- 6.5
• Sol deep: fertile well drained
Nursery work:- transplanting
• Carried out when the weather is cool
• Done when seedlings are 4-5 weeks old
• One should select only the strong and health seedlings
• Water the nursery bed throughouly before transplanting
• Lift seedlings carefully/use a garden trowel
• Apply phosphatic fertilizer in the planting hole
• Apply an insecticide in the planting hole
• Apply phosphatic fertilizer in the planting hole
• Place seedlings to the same depth as it was in the nursery bed
• Apply a thin mulch around the base of the seedlings
• Water the seedlings thoroughly
Field practices
• Gapping- should be done on time
• Fertilizer application- top dress with CAN at the rate of 1 teaspoon
per plant when crop is 18-21cm high.
• Repeat the top dress 3-4 weeks later
• Weeding- carry out regular weeding either mechanically or by use
of selective herbicides
• Irrigation- done when dry/rainfall is unreliable.
• Pest control- identify the pest and control them appropriately e.g.
damping off, club root, mildew, black rot.
• Harvesting- done when head is solid and firm usually 3-4 months
• Cut the stem below the head and pack in sacks.
• Yield 20-40 tonnes per hectare.
Tomatoes
• Lycopersicon esculentum
• Family- solanaceae
• Varieties- two categories
• Fresh marked varieties- usually round in shape e.g. money maker, best of
all
• Processing varieties, usually oval in shape e.g. Roma, carl-J, Kenya beautyappropriate for processing into pastes, sauces and juices.
Ecology
• Rainfall- 760mm-1300 pa
• Altitude- sea level- 2100m a.s.l
• Temperature- 180c-270c
• Soil pH- 6.5
• Soil- Deep fertile well drained soil
UNIT SIX
LIVESTOCK HEALTH 1
INTRODUCTION TO LIVESTOCK
HEALTH
Specific objectives;
• Define health and disease
• Describe signs of sickness in livestock
• State the predisposing factors of livestock diseases
• Categories livestock diseases
• Carry out disease control practices
• State the importance of maintaining livestock healthy.
• Describe appropriate methods of handling livestock.
Definitions
• Health- this is a state of the body where all the body organs and organ systems are normal and
carrying their function normally.
• Disease- this is a state of the body organs or organ system that make them not to function normally
Symptoms of ill-health
• Loss of appetite/ depraved appetite
• Pale/reddened mucous membranes
• Change in colour/consistency of the droppings/urine
• Dull appearance/starry coat
• Loss of body condition/emaciation
• Drastic drop in level of production/ retarded growth
• High fever
• Labored breathing
• Abnormal pulse rate
• Isolating itself from the others
• Coughing, sneezing, running nose
• Limping/lameness
• Presence of wounds on the skin, hooves mouth
• Abnormal pulse rate
Predisposing factors:
• Factors within or outside an animal that makes it more likely to be
attracted by a particular disease.
• Age of the animal
• Sex of the animal
• Heredity
• Breed/ colour of the body coat
• Size of the herd
• Livestock species
• Animal movement
• Abrupt change in weather
• Body conformation
• Body condition
• Living conditions
Classification of livestock diseases
• Based on the casual agent:• Physical causes e.g. fracture, burns
• Chemical causes e.g. drug over dose, acids, alkali,
poisonous plants
• Nutritional causes e.g. deficiency of some nutrients,
overfeeding, underfeeding
• Pathogenic diseases
• Bacteria
• Protozoa
• Virus
NB: Pathogenic diseases are infectious
UNIT SEVEN
LIVESTOCK HEALTH II
PARASITES
Specific objectives
• By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
• Describe host parasite relationship
• Identify different parasites
• Describe the life cycles of parasites
• State signs and symptoms of parasites attack
• Explain methods of parasite control in livestock
Parasites
• These are living organisms that depend on others (hosts) for food an
sometimes shelter.
• There are two categories:
• Ectoparasites: found on the body of the host e.g. ticks, tsetse flies, keds,
feas
• Endoparasites: found in the body of the host e.. roundworms, tapeworms
and liverlukes
Effects of parasites on hosts
• Suck blood casing anemia
• If in large numbers, may clock the organs they attack
• Some are vectors of livestock diseases
• They cause discomfort by their painful bites
• Deprives the host off its food leading to malnutrition
• Their bites leave wounds that may allow pathogens
into the animal’s body
• They cause serious damage to the organs the attack
interfering with their normal functioning.
Categories of parasites
Ticks: Blood sucking arachnids
• They are put into two types
• Soft ticks- attacks mainly poultry
• Hard ticks- most common, attack other livestock
• Hard ticks are put into three categories depending on the
number of hosts each requires to complete its life cycle.
One-host tick- larva, nymph and adult rely on the same host
for blood.
• Blue tick (Boophilous decratus)
• Cattle tick (Boophibus microplus annulatus
xxxxx
• Two- host tick- Larva and nymph rely on the
same host
• 1st host, adult depends on the 2nd host
• Red legged tick (Rhipicephalous evertsi)
• Brown tick (Rhipicephalous bursa)
• African bont legged tick (Hyalomma
truncatums)
• Large bont legge trick (Hyalomma rufipes)
Three host tick- 1st host- larvae
• 2nd host- nymph
• 3rd host- adult
• Brown ear tick (Rhipicephalous
appendiculatus)
• Bont tick (Amblyomma herbaem)
• East African bont tick (Amblyomma
variegatum)
Effects of ticks on livestock production
• They suck blood causing anemia
• They are vectors of tick-borne diseases
• Create wounds that may serves as entry for diseases causing organisms.
• They inject toxic saliva that have negative effects on the livestock
• They lower the quality of skin/hide
Control of ticks
Biological:• White regrets are natural predators of ticks, hence they control ticks by eating
them.
• Self-licking thus dislodging the tick from the body
Cultural:• Ploughing heavily infested pastures thus burying the ticks to death
• Burning heavily infested pastures thus killing the ticks
• Rotational grazing kills the ticks by starvation
Mechanical/physical
Deticking- physical removing the ticks from the animal’s
body and killing them.
Fencing, keep away foreign animals that may bring ticks
on the farm.
Use of chemicals known as acaricides are used
They are applied in the following ways:
Spraying using- spray race – bucket sprayer
Dipping
Hand dressing using pye-grease
Pour- on
Tsetse fly
These are blood sucking insect
Control
• Bush clearing to eliminate their breeding grounds
• Spray infested areas with insecticides
• Trap and kill the parasites
• Sterilizing the males and releasing them
Endoparasites
• Round worms e.g. Ascaris lumbricoides have a direct/simple life cycles
without an intermediate host.
• Flat worms e.g. tapeworms and liverflukes; have complex life cycles with
both complex life cycles with both
• Primary host/definitive host and
• Secondary host/ intermediate host
• Control of endoparasites
Tape worms
• Regular deworming the livestock
• Proper disposal of human fecal matter
• Meat inspection
• Proper cooking of meat
• Ploughing/burning infested pastures to kill the larva stages
• Routine deworming of farm workers
Liver flukes
• Control the intermediate host
• Routine deworming of livestock
• Avoid grazing in marshy areas/fence off marshy areas.
Control measure of the intermediate host of liver flukes
• Physically killing the snail
• Rear ducks on the farm to eat the snails
• Drain off marshy areas to kill the snails
• Apply copper II sulphate in stagnant water infested with snails
• Burn infested pastures to kill the snails
• Round worms
• Routine drenching of livestock
• Burning heavily infested pastures
• Practice rotational grazing
• They are carriers of fat soluble vitamins
• Fat beneath the skin insulates the body against cold.
• Livestock feeds are put into two broad categories.
Concentrates- these are commercially prepared feeds. There
are two types of concentrates:
• Protein concentrates e.g. legume seeds products, bone
meal, meat meal, blood meal
• Carbohydrates concentrates e.g. cereal grains and their byproducts, molasses.
Roughage- Originate from plants
• Put into three types:
• Dry roughage e.g. hay
• Succulent roughage e.g. silage, green vegetation
• Tubers e.g. root and stem tubers
• Characteristics of roughages
• Origin is from plants
• They are bulky
• Highly fibrous
• High dry matter (DM) content
• Low crude protein (CP) content
• Low dry matter digestibility
Characteristics of concentrates
• High dry matter digestively
• Low fibre content
• Low moisture content
• High level of nutrients per unit weight
• High palatability
Terms used in expressing feed value
• Energy value
Calorific value
Starch equivalent
2. Level of nutrients
• Dry matter (DM) content- sum total of all carbohydrates, proteins and
minerals in a feed
• Crude fibres (CF)- material of plant origin, usually of low digestability
• Digestible crude proteins (DCP)- sum total of all nitrogenous compounds
that can be derived from a feed.
• Total digestible nutrients (TDN)- sum total of all digestiblke carbohydrates,
proteins and lipids in a feed.
• Crude proteins (CP)- sum total of all nitrogenous compounds in a feed.
• Rationing- practice of preparing a balanced feed for a particular animal.
• Factors to consider:
• Size of the animal
• Level of production
• Age of the animal
• Ambient temperature
• Physiological status of the animal
Methods of ration computation
• Trial and error method
• Use of the person square
• Digestion and digestive system of livestock depending on their digestive system.
• Ruminants e.g. cattle, sheep, goats
• Non-ruminants e.g. poultry, rabbits, pigs, camels, donkeys
Ruminant digestive system,
Differences between digestion in ruminants and non ruminants
Ruminants
• They have four stomach compartments polygastic
• They chew cuds
• They regurgitate their food
• Do not have salivary amylase
• Saliva is alkaline due to ammonia gas belched from the rumen
• Harbour micro-organisms in the rumen that carry out cellulose
digestion
• Are able to synthesis amino acids s by microbial activity .
• Are able to synthesis vitamin s B and K by microbial activity.
Non –Ruminants
• They have a simple stomach-monogastic
• Do not chew cuds
• Not able to regurgitate food unless vomiting.
• Saliva has enzyme amylase
• Saliva has a neutral PH
• Not able to digest cellulose unless those that habour
micro-organisms in the caesum.
• Not able to synthesis amino acids
• Not able to synthesis any vitamins apart from vitamin
D.
Unique feature of the poultry digestive system.
Mouth
• Modified into a beak
• Has no teeth
Crop
• An enlarged portion of the oesophagus
• Mixes an d softens food with water
Gizzard
• Designed for grinding food into powdery substance
• It is highly muscular
• Has tough horny inner lining
• Hold s and store grit swallowed by the bird
Caeca
• Birds have two caeca
• Harbous micro-organisms that digests cellulose
Thank you!