Control Systems in Plants
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Transcript Control Systems in Plants
Plant Responses to Internal &
External Signals
For the readings, pay special
attention to the diagrams
Review of Signal Transduction
Pathways
Reception: signal is detected by some
sort of receptor
Transduction: signal is “carried” from the
receptor to the nucleus
This is where you have secondary
messengers transfer the signal
Protein kinase, or
The cGMP pathway (like the cAMP pathway)
Response: activates different
transcriptional factors or enzymes
Example: Potatoes
Potatoes grow beneath the soil in a dark
environment (they produce many short
stems that lack leaves in the hope that the
stem will break through the soil surface)
The adaptations to grow in the dark is known as
etiolation
When a stem breaks through the surface,
leaves expand, roots elongate, and the
plant produces chlorphyll
This process is called de-etiolation
Reception
A photoreceptor, phytochrome, detects
that light after the shoot breaks through
the soil
Phytochromes are not located on the
cell surface, but are instead located in
the cytoplasm
When light strikes the phytochrome, it
causes a conformational change that
causes a transduction pathway to begin
Transduction
Reception can be from a VERY weak light
source, therefore you need to “amplify” the
signal through transduction
The phytochrome, when activated, causes an
increase in the concentration of cGMP (like
cAMP) and calcium ion.
cGMP activates protein kinases (through
phosphorylation)
The increased calcium concentration with the
activation of kinases leads to a response
Response
Many transcriptional factors are activated in deetiolation
Some are activated by phosphorylation
Some are activated by cGMP
Some are activated by calcium
In addition to transcriptional factors, posttranslational enzymes are also activated to modify
the created proteins
Most of the proteins created are associated with
photosynthesis and chlorophyll production
PLANT HORMONES
How hormones coordinate growth,
development and response to
environment
Plant Hormones
Hormones are chemical signals that
coordinate the various parts of an
organism
A hormone is a compound produced in one part
of the organism which is then transported to
other parts of the organism, where it triggers
responses in target cells and tissues
Many hormones are effective in VERY small
concentrations
Many times, hormone concentrations are
dependent on environmental stimuli
Example with Light
Example of the action of hormones
Auxin is a hormone that induces a plant to move
towards or away from a stimuli, tropism
Stimulus: Light
Response: the plants growth pattern will
cause the growth shoot to move towards or
away from the light
Phototropism: growth towards the light
Negative phototropism: growth away
from the light
Plant Hormones
There are 5 major classes of plant
hormones, each with specific functions:
Auxin
Cytokinins
Gibberellins
Ethylene
Abscisic acid
NOTE: Many hormones interact with each
other to enhance or inhibit their activities
Auxin
Found:
In the embryo of seeds, meristems of apical
buds and young leaves
Function:
Stimulates stem elongation and root growth
(causes the root cells to elongate)
Stimulates development of fruit
Involved in phototropism and gravitropism,
response of a plant to the effects of gravity
Cytokinins
Found:
Made in the roots and transported to other
organs of the plant
Function:
Affect the growth and differentiation of roots
Stimulates cell division and growth (in
conjunction with auxins)
Stimulates germination, growth from a seed
Delay senescence, or the aging of the plant
Gibberellins
Found: in meristems of
apical buds and roots,
young leaves and
embryos
Function:
Promote seed and bud
germination, stem
elongation and leaf
growth
Stimulate flowering
and fruit development
Affect root growth and
differentiation
Ethylene
Found: in tissues of ripe
fruit, nodes of stems,
and aging leaves and
flowers
Function:
Opposes some of the
effects of auxin
(feedback)
Promotes fruit
ripening
Senescence (aging)
is at least party
caused by ethylene
“One bad apple spoils
the whole bunch”
Abscisic Acid
Found: in leaves, stems,
roots, and green fruit
Function:
Induces seed dormancy
Anti-gibberellin
Inhibits cell growth
Anti-cytokinin
Inhibits fruit ripening
Anti-ethylene
Closes stomata during
water stress, allowing
many plants to survive
droughts
PLANT RESPONSES
How plants respond to various
factors
Tropisms
Tropisms are growth responses that
result in curvatures of whole plant organs
toward or away from a stimuli
There are three major stimuli that induce
tropisms
Light (Phototropism)
Gravity (Gravitropism)
Touch (Thigmotropism)
Phototropism
Phototropism is
the growth of a
shoot towards light
This is primarily
due to the action
of auxin
Auxin elongates
the cells on the
non-light side
Light Receptors:
There are 2 main types of photoreceptors
Blue-light
Phytochromes:
photoreceptor:
These receptors
These receptors
absorb mostly red
absorb mostly blue
light
light
Responsible for de May be responsible for
etiolation, seed
opening stomata, and
germination, and
inhibit hypocotyl
“avoid” shade
elongation in seedlings
breaking ground
Circadian Rhythms
The production of enzymes, hormones and
other processes oscillate during the day
This is due to many environmental factors
Light levels, temperature, humidity
There are other processes that occur with a
frequency of every 24 hours that are not
dependent on environment: circadian
rhythms
Biological Clocks/Circadian Rhythms
A physiological cycle with a frequency of about
24 hours is called a circadian rhythm
Even without external, environmental cues,
circadian rhythms persist in humans and in all
eukaryotes
Example: jet lag in humans, leaf position in bean
plants
It is believed these are due to some internal
biological clock that regulate these processes
(these work independent of the day/night cycle)
Photoperiodism
A physiological response to day length (differs in winter,
summer, spring, and fall) is known as photoperiodism
Short-day plants
Require a shorter light period
Flower in later summer/fall/winter
Example: poinsettias
Long-day plants
Require a longer light period
Flower in late spring/early summer
Example: spinach
Day-neutral plants
Are unaffected by photoperiod
Example: tomatoes
But it’s actually the night that matters!! (if there is even a
little sunlight during the “night” the flowers will not bloom)
Other Factors that Affect Flowering
In addition to photoperiod, some plants
need additional environmental cues to
induce flowering
Example: Some plants need to be exposed to
critical temperature ranges
Vernalization: the need to be exposed to long
periods of “cold” temperatures to induce
flowering (this occurs in winter wheat)
Missing Flower Hormone
It is believed that the photoperiod is
detected by some chemical signal
located in the leaves, florigen (not
yet found)
If all of the leaves are removed
from the plant, it is no longer
affected by photoperiod
Plant Defenses
Plants defend themselves against
herbivores in several ways
Physical defenses, such as thorns
Chemical defenses, such as
producing distasteful/toxic
compounds
Can use chemicals to attract
insects to help defend the plant
• Wasps
Plant Defenses
Chemical warning systems:
When there is an infestation by
insects, plants can release a
chemical signal that causes other
plants to activate “defense” genes
to counteract the infesting
organisms
Plant Defenses
Defense against pathogens is also important for plant
survival
First line of defense is the plant’s “skin”
Plant dermis, cuticle, bark
If a plant becomes infected, they release a series of
chemicals that destroy the pathogen (much like our
immune system)
If a pathogen is able to “avoid” or “suppress” a
plants defenses, the pathogen is said to be
virulent
Many times the pathogen weakens, but does not
kill, the plant so that the pathogen may survive
• This condition is called avirulent
Pathogen Detection
At the genetic level, plant disease resistance can begin
with gene-for-gene recognition
The plant is able to “recognize” the protein products
of the pathogen and able to mount a defense against
the disease
Another “detection” method are molecules called
elicitors
Example: oligosaccharins are molecules that derive
from damage cell walls
They can also mount a defense against disease
Plant Response to Pathogen
Once warned, plants can release chemicals that can
fight an invader
Phytoalexins are a group of compounds that are
antimicrobial (the equivalent of our B and Tcells)
There are also a general group of proteins (PR,
or pathogenesis-related, proteins) that are
antimicrobial or act as messengers to activate
further defense
If the pathogen is avirulent, then there may be a
more aggressive, localized, response called
hypersensitive response
General Defense
A hypersensitive response may produce a
chemical signal that alerts the rest of the
plant
As a result, more phytoalexins and PR
proteins can be released to produce a
nonspecific defense, system acquired
resistance (SAR)
A hormone that is thought to produce
this resistance is salicylic acid