Transcript Chapter 1 Composition

CHAPTER 1 THE EARTH’S
ATMOSPHERE
CONTENT
• MU
• ATMOSPHERE
• TEMPERATURE
• HOMEWORK READ CHAPTER #1 & 2
NOTAMS
• MWH 01/022 MWH RWY 36 BOW MU
27/25/28 WEF 0901050405
• BOW = Bowmonk Decelerometer
(Bowmonk Sales)
• MU = Pronounced “Mew”, MU is a
measurement of runway friction as reported
by airport management.
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NOTAM
BOW MU 27/25/28 WEF 0901050405
1ST THIRD VALUE 27
2ND THIRD 25
LAST 3RD 28
Went in effect 09 = 2009
01 = 1st month
05= 5th day
0405 = 0405z
http://www.faa.gov/airports_airtraffic/airport
s/resources/advisory_circulars/media/1505200-28D/150_5200_28d.pdf
BRAKING ACTION
TAF 1/5/2009
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TAF KMWH 051734Z 0518/0618 26004KT P6SM SCT020 SCT250 FM052000
22004KT P6SM SCT030 SCT250 FM060500 21005KT 5SM BR FEW002 BKN250
FM060900 23004KT 3SM BR VCSH OVC008
KMWH 061121Z 0612/0712 20005KT 6SM BR VCSH SCT030 OVC080
FM061400 17005KT P6SM -SN OVC045 FM062100 21006KT P6SM OVC005
KMWH 061852Z 00000KT 5SM BR BKN005 BKN070 M02/M03 A2983 RMK
AO2 SLP117 T10171028
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KMWH 061850Z 0619/0718 00000KT 6SM BR BKN005 BKN070 TEMPO
0619/0622 4SM -FZRA SCT005 BKN040 FM062200 17006KT 5SM -RA BKN005
FM070200 21011KT P6SM BKN050 KEPH 061853Z AUTO 36005KT 8SM
OVC060 M02/M04 A2983 RMK AO2 SLP118 T10171039
KMWH 070001Z 00000KT 2SM BR BKN060 M01/M01 A2968 RMK AO2
KMWH 070009Z 0700/0724 VRB03KT 5SM BR FEW030 OVC050 TEMPO
0700/0704 2SM BR SCT005 OVC040 FM070400 20010KT 3SM BR BKN006
OVC040 FM071200 19006KT 2SM BR VCSH BKN006
KEPH 062353Z AUTO 33005KT M1/4SM FZFG VV001 M01/M02 A2967 RMK
AO2 SLP064 T10111017 10011 21033 56025
TAF
• KMWH 072327Z 0800/0824 20012G15KT P6SM
OVC070
• FM080700 18010KT P6SM -RA OVC060
FM081100 18011KT 6SM -RA BR OVC040
• FM081400 20012G20KT P6SM -SHRA OVC030
• FM081600 20012G20KT P6SM BKN150
• TAF 1-8-2010
• FM081700 06006KT P6SM BKN019 OVC100
FD
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DATA BASED ON 070000Z VALID 071200Z
FOR USE 0900-1800Z. TEMPS NEG ABV 24000 FT
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3000 6000
9000 12000 18000 24000 30000 34000 39000
GEG
2747+02 2950-01 2877-07 2984-15 2889-26 790341 791152 790755
YKM 2629 2765+06 2874+02 2869-03 2855-14 2869-25 288540 299951 299958
LWS 2430 2761+04 2863-01 2967-06 2967-16 2973-26 299841 800252 800457
Chapter 1
THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE
• The Earth’s atmosphere is in a constant tug
of war to reach equilibrium.
• The state of the Atmosphere at any given
time and place in this tug of war is referred
to as = weather.
• The first part of this class is the study of
the atmosphere and atmospheric
phenomena that occur in it =
Meteorology.(Aviation Weather Theory)
ATMOSPHERIC LAYERS
• 99.9% of the total atmospheric mass is below
164,000 ft (about 27 n.m.). At this altitude
the density is about one-thousandth of sea
levels density. Very close to the top but there
is no well-defined upper surface to the
atmosphere.
• 90% of mass is below 53,000 ft
• 50% of mass is below 18,000 ft
atmospheric mass
Chapter 1
COMPOSITION
• When we consider the vertical
structure of the atmosphere, we find
that the proportions of the gases in dry
air remain relatively constant to a
height of about 80 km, although, at
heights greater than 16 km, there is a
slight tendency for some of them to be
more concentrated at certain levels
than others
Chapter 1
COMPOSITION
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Air is a mixture of several gases
78 % Nitrogen
21% Oxygen
1% Inert gases (argon, carbon
dioxide, Neon, Helium etc.)
• 0 to 5% Particulate (water vapor,
smoke, dust, sand, volcanic ash
etc.)
Chapter 1
COMPOSITION
THE STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
• The ICAO standard atmosphere is
established for average conditions
prevailing in the first 20,000
meters (66,000ft), at about 40
degrees latitude north.
THE STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
• For pilots an ISA day would be:
• Mean sea-level pressure 1013.25 hectopascals,
29.92 inches of mercury
• Temperature 15 degrees C (59F),
• Lapse rate 2 degrees C per 1000ft (1.95 degrees C
per 300 M/1.98 degrees C),
• 1 inch Hg per 1000 feet
• Altitude of the tropopause 11,000 meters (36,000
ft) above mean sea-sea level
• Tropopause Temp -56.5C (36,200 to 64,000ft)
Vertical Structure by Temp.
• On the basis of temperature and its
variation with altitude, the atmosphere
can be divided into four main layers, or
“spheres”, whose names are as follows:
• Troposphere,
• Stratosphere,
• Mesosphere and
• Thermosphere.
“SPHERE”/ “PAUSE”
• The upper part of each layer, characterized by
changes in the temperature variation with altitude,
is identified by replacing the suffix “sphere” with
“pause”. Thus the upper part of the troposphere is
called the tropopause.
• Similarly, the stratopause is the upper part of the
stratosphere, and the mesopause, the upper section
of the mesosphere. Since the thermosphere is
considered to extend into space indefinitely, there
is no thermopause.
Vertical Structure by Temp. (3)
LAYERS OF ATMOSPHERE BY TEMP
TROPOSPHERE
• The word troposphere derives from
the Greek: tropos for "turning" or "mixing,"
reflecting the fact that turbulent mixing plays an
important role in the troposphere's structure and
behavior. Most of the phenomena we associate with
day-to-day weather occur in the troposphere.
• The troposphere is the lowest portion of Earth's
atmosphere. It contains approximately 75% of the
atmosphere's mass and 99% of its water
vapor and aerosols.
TROPOSHERE
• Starts at the surface and goes
up to an average of 7 miles
high
• 20,000 ft at the poles to
65,000 at the equator
• It is higher in the summer
than winter
• Standard Lapse rate is 2
degrees C/ 1000 ft (1.98 C)
or 3.5 F/1000 ft
TROPOSHERE
• Contains the majority of all weather mostly
because of the presence of water vapour and
large-scale vertical currents
• In the cold upper-air regions near the
tropopause, winds reach their maximum
speeds and acquire a complex flow structure
because of the jet streams, the narrow and
fast-moving air currents that are imbedded
in the general circulation.
TROPOPAUSE
• Signaled by the beginning of an isothermal
layer (no to little change of temp with
height) an abrupt change in temperature
lapse rate.
• Boundary layer between troposphere and
stratosphere
• Higher above the surface over the equator
then the poles generally. Higher in warmer
regions than in colder.
TROPOPAUSE
• The jet stream exists in occasional
breaks in the tropopause between
unlike air masses.
STRATOSPHERE
• Temp remains constant until
• At about 66,000 ft. temps starts to
rise because of the ozone absorbing
energy (inversion)
• This creates an inversion that keeps
the Troposphere’s upward currents
down. Very stable layer.
STRATOSPHERE
• Even at 30 km, there can be clouds forming
in this stable layer. They are rare and called
nacreous, or mother-of-pearl clouds. These
clouds are thought to be made of ice
crystals. They indicate that some water
vapour is still present in this layer (although
not much )Because they have a soft pearly
luster as viewed from the surface of the
earth. Best viewed in the poles with sun
close to the horizon.
STRATOPAUSE/MESOSPHERE
• The upper part of the layer, is defined as the level
where the temperature suddenly begins to rise with
altitude. This increase in temperature characterizes the
lower levels of the mesosphere, in which the average
temperature reaches a maximum of about 10 degrees C
at an altitude of about 50 km.
• Ozone concentrations are maximum here.
MESOSPHERE
• Higher in the mesosphere, the temperature once
again begins to fall and, 80 km above the earth,
reaches a minimum temp. of about -100 degrees
C, at the level called the mesopause. There is little
ozone up here therefore temps decrease with an
increase in altitude.
MESOPAUSE
• Temperatures begin to increase with
altitude near the mesopause, after
reaching their minimum in the upper
part of the mesosphere.
THERMOSPHERE
• This increase in temperature continues
indefinitely into space, and is
characteristic of the layer called the
thermosphere. (Gets warmer with an
increase in altitude.)
• 53 to 310 miles
• Radiation excites the oxygen molecule
causing a temp increase.
LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE
Other Regions IONOSPHERE
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Ionosphere
not really a layer
37 miles is roughly the bottom
180 miles is the greatest concentration
electrified region of the atmosphere
caused by the sun ionizing the atmosphere (the
process of making positive ions by freeing
electrons from balanced atoms or molecules)
Therefore have a large region of electrically
charged particles (ions) in this area.
• Its importance lies in the density of the free electrons it
contains, which is sufficient to greatly influence radio
communications.
Other Regions IONOSPHERE
• Sky waves are reflected from the ionosphere in
the upper atmosphere. Radio waves are
absorbed by the ionosphere at day and are
reflected at night, so reception is better at
night. Sky waves permit radio reception up to
8000 miles.
Sky waves are HF (high frequency 3,000-30,000
khz). And can allow for skipping of the HF
signal. Can also affect MF (ADF transmissions
during sunset and sunrise.)
OTHER LAYERS
• EXOSPHERE
• 310 miles and further
• Consists of atoms and molecules in
loose orbit sometimes shooting off
into space. An exit area.
Other Regions
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Aurora Borealis
124 to 600 miles out
Atomic oxygen = green & red
Atomic nitrogen = red & violet
SOUTHERN/NORTHERN LIGHTS
• Southern lights (Aurora Australis)
from space
• Northern lights over lake superior
• Northern lights Alaska
• Aurora Borealis
• 124 to 600 miles out
HYPOXIA Basics
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_IqWal_EmBg&featu
re=player_embedded
• Air is matter and has weight. Since it is gaseous, it is
compressible. Pressure the atmosphere exerts on the
surface is the result of the weight of the air above. Thus,
air near the surface is more dense than air at high
altitudes.
• The decrease in air density with increasing height has a
physiological effect. The rate at which the lungs absorb
oxygen depends on the partial pressure exerted by
oxygen in the air.
HYPOXIA
• By definition, the lack of adequate oxygen in the
body’s metabolism is called hypoxia (or anoxia
for the total absence of oxygen). It is the lack of
sufficient oxygen to the body’s tissues and cells.
• Reasons may include:
• Interference of drugs, alcohol, carbon monoxide,
smoking, and illness, high altitudes to name a few.
HYPOXIA
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4 types of Hypoxia:
Hypoxic (altitude) hypoxia
Hypemic (anemic) hypoxia
Stagnant hypoxia
Histotoxic hypoxia
Hypoxic HYPOXIA
• Hypoxic hypoxia commonly used when talking
about hypoxia associated with lack of available
oxygen, as experienced when flying at altitude in
an unpressurized cabin.
• It means that there aren’t enough oxygen
molecules available to breath with sufficient
pressure, as when we ascend. The number of
molecules of oxygen decrease, despite the fact that
the percentage remains the same.
Hypoxic HYPOXIA
• Symptoms do not become a significant factor until
about 5000 ft, especially at night (vision).
• From a gas-law perspective, hypoxic hypoxia
exists when the partial pressure of oxygen in the
atmosphere or the inhaled ambient air is reduce.
This reduced partial pressure is also present in the
inspired air as it travels into the bronchial tree and
into the lungs. In other words, the partial pressure
of oxygen as it is presented to the blood within the
lung is too low to effectively carry and transfer
enough oxygen to the cells of the tissues.
Hypemic Hypoxia
• This occurs when the blood’s ability to carry
oxygen molecules is the problem, even though
there is adequate oxygen available in the air to
breathe and exchange.
• Anemia (reduced number of healthy functioning
red blood cells (oxygen carriers)
• Carbon Monoxide if inhaled can hold a bond 250
times stronger than oxygen and take the space of
oxygen on the hemoglobin. (compete with oxygen
takes a long time to be removed from system)
Stagnant Hypoxia
• Blood flow is compromised for any reason such as
the heart failing to pump effectively, an artery
constricting and cutting off or reducing the flow,
and venous pooling of blood because of gravity,
such as in varicose veins of the legs.
• Also pulling positive G’s and long periods of
pressure breathing at extreme cabin altitudes
where oxygen masks are required or extreme cold
temperature can all lead to stagnant hypoxia.
Histotoxic Hypoxia
• Histotoxic means the cell expecting and
needing oxygen is abnormal and unable to
take up the oxygen that is present.
• This abnormality created as a result of toxin
or toxins present / absorbed by the cell.
• Alcohol, narcotics and certain poisons
Symptoms of Hypoxia
• Change in peripheral vision, even noting “tunnel
vision”
• Visual acuity impairment, images slightly blurred,
can’t focus.
• Difficulty in visual accommodation, focusing from
near to distant and back.
• Weakness in muscles
• Feeling tired
• Sense of touch diminished
Symptoms of Hypoxia
• Sense of pain diminished
• Headache (especially long periods of
hypoxia)
• Lightheaded / dizziness
• Tingling in fingers and toes
• Muscular coordination decreased
• Stammering
Symptoms of Hypoxia
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Cyanosis, bluish lips and fingernails
Impaired judgment, doing dumb things
Loss of self-criticism
Overconfidence
Aggressive
Depression
Altered respiration
Symptoms of Hypoxia
• Reaction time decreased
• Greatly reduced color discrimination and
night vision (even at 5000 ft)
• Euphoria, you settle for less, who cares?
Smoking
• Smoking increases a pilot’s physiological
altitude.
• If you smoke your body thinks it is at a
higher altitude than you really are.
Time of Useful Consciousness
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18,000 ft
22,000 ft
25,000 ft
30,000 ft
40,000 ft
43,000 ft
20-30 minutes
10 minutes
3-5 minutes
1-2 minutes
15-20 seconds
9-12 seconds
Treatment for Hypoxia
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If you have oxygen use it.
If you can get to a lower altitude do it quick.
Below 10,000 ft is a must
Hypoxia is a valid reason for declaring an
emergency.
Chapter 2
Temperature
• Temperature is the degree of
hotness or coldness of a body or
environment.
• Measurement of the energy of the
molecules (movement)
• ASOS sensors
AVERAGE KINETIC ENERGY
Solar Elevation Angle
• The primary cause of the Earth’s weather is
variation of solar energy received by the
Earth’s regions.
One Year
TEMPERATURE
• The melting point of pure ice and boiling point of
pure water at sea level is 0 degrees C or 32
degrees F and 100 degrees C 212 degrees F.
• Thus the difference between melting and boiling is
100 degrees C or 180 degrees F
• 100/180 = 5/9
• Since the O point in F is 32 degrees different that
0 degrees C you must apply this difference when
comparing the temps on the two scales
Chapter 2
Temperature pg.6
• Temperature Conversion equations:
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• Kelvin: °K= °C + 273.15 (O degrees Kelvin = no molecular
motion = absolute 0)
• Centigrade: °C = 5/9(F
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- 32)
Fahrenheit: °F = 9/5C + 32
Rankin: °R= °F + 459.67
Note: 5/9 = 0.5555555 and 9/5 = 1.8
For example: 25.01°C = 198.16°K = 77.018°F = 536.688°R
Memorize the conversion of Celsius and Fahrenheit above.
Lines of equal temperature are called isotherms
Chapter 2
Temperature
• 32 degrees Fahrenheit and 0
degrees Celsius causes ice to melt.
• 100 degrees Celsius or 180
Fahrenheit is the boiling
temperature at sea level on a
standard day.
What is a Thermometer?
• A thermometer is an instrument that
measures the temperature of a system in a
quantitative way. The easiest way to do this
is to find a substance having a property that
changes in a regular way with its
temperature. The most direct 'regular' way
is a linear one:
What is a Thermometer?
• For example, the element mercury is liquid in the
temperature range of -38.9° C to 356.7° C. As a liquid,
mercury expands as it gets warmer, its expansion rate is
linear and can be accurately calibrated.
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• The mercury-in-glass thermometer illustrated in the above
figure contains a bulb filled with mercury that is allowed to
expand into a capillary. Its rate of expansion is calibrated
on the glass scale.
Early thermometer
• They consisted of a glass bulb having a long
tube extending downward into a container of
colored water, although Galileo in 1610 is
supposed to have used wine. Some of the air
in the bulb was expelled before placing it in
the liquid, causing the liquid to rise into the
tube. As the remaining air in the bulb was
heated or cooled, the level of the liquid in the
tube would vary reflecting the change in the
air temperature. An engraved scale on the
tube allowed for a quantitative measure of
the fluctuations.
Early thermometer
• It was in 1724 that Gabriel Fahrenheit, used
mercury as the thermometric liquid. Mercury's
thermal expansion is large and fairly uniform,
it does not adhere to the glass, and it remains a
liquid over a wide range of temperatures. Its
silvery appearance makes it easy to read.
CONVERSIONS
• To convert from Celsius to Fahrenheit: multiply by
1.8 and add 32.
• ° F = 1.8° C + 32
The albedo of the Earth
• The albedo of an object is the extent to which it diffusely
reflects light from the Sun. It is therefore a more specific
form of the term reflectivity.
• The average albedo of our planet is around 0.3. This means
that 30% of the sunlight that strikes the Earth is re-emitted
back into space. Rainforests have the lowest albedo on the
Earth.
• Percentage albedo for different types of surface
• Fresh snow 80-85
• Old snow 50-60
• Grass 20-25
• Forest 5-10
• White paint 80 Black paint 5
ALBEDO
Mean predicted surface temperatures if the Earth was
covered by different surfaces
• The mean temperature of the Earth's surface is
15 oC at present. If our planet was completely
covered by forests (Ewok Planet) the average
temperature would be 24 oC. If the Earth's
surface was all desert (Planet Dune), the mean
temperature would be 13 oC. If there were only
oceans, the temperature would be 32 oC because
water is dark and has a low albedo. If our planet
was completely covered by ice, the temperature
would be really cold, just -52 oC!
sun
• The source of energy for the atmosphere is the
sun. Only about 51% of the energy striking the
top of the atmosphere is actually absorbed at
the earth’s surface.
• The solar radiation scattered and reflected back
into space is about 30% = earths albedo
• At night no sun Earth gives off or radiates its
IR radiation back into space
• Water has about four times the heat capacity
of typical dry soil. The ability of water to
absorb large amount of solar energy is
further increased because radiation can
penetrate to a greater depth than soil. Also
water mixes.
• Water temp stays constant longer and
warms slower than land
Snow
• Snow reflects a large fraction of incoming
solar radiation and gives up infrared
radiation easily; these influences help keep
the temps low over snow surfaces under
clear skies
• Cloud layer at night increases the capture of
IR further restricting night time cooling.
TEMPERATURE AND Wx
• Insolation is when the suns rays warm
the earth
• Different surfaces radiate and receive
at different rates (Land/Water) Water
tends to change it temperature slower.
• Terrestrial radiation when the earth
radiates the energy back into the
atmosphere
TEMPERATURE AND Wx
• Diurnal Variation is difference
between day and night (coldest
temp just after sunrise)
• Seasonal variation - summer to
winter
• length of days and nights
• Latitude variation - angle which
the suns rays strike the earth
TEMPERATURE AND Wx
• Topography variation - arid land
Vs vegetation (wet / dry)
• Variations with Altitude - Average
lapse rate 2 degrees C per 1000
feet.
• (3.56 °F or 1.98 °C/1000 ft) this is the
actual ISA environmental lapse rate
TEMPERATURE AND Wx
• All of the above temperature
effects create weather patterns.
Be it they make the air more
dense, change the pressure,
increase or decrease moisture in
the air. They all affect aircraft
performance.
INVERSION
• Increase in temp with an increase in
altitude
• Can occur at any altitude in Troposphere
• Most common occurrence is on calm
clear cool night in which the ground
cools air close to it.
• This is caused by terrestrial radiation
INVERSION
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This time of year the basin gets one
Cold stable air near the surface
Warm overriding air above
smooth air
poor visibility under the inversion
Get socked in sometimes for weeks
INVERSION (10)