Transcript （projection） 小马托福

小马托福
400-663-1986
破解托福阅读中的最难题型
----小结题/图表题
小马过河托福阅读老师白凤娇
小马托福
400-663-1986
Scholars have wondered about the meaning of the subjects, location, and overpainting of Lascaux cave
images.
Opportunists
Competitors
小马托福
总结题的误区一
有人说：总结题选文章的主要观点，
一定是这样么？
400-663-1986
小马托福
Warm-up
The Long-term Stability of Ecosystems
400-663-1986
小马托福
400-663-1986
1Plant communities assemble themselves flexibly, and their particular
structure depends on the specific history of the area. Ecologists use
the term “succession” to refer to the changes that happen in plant
communities and ecosystems over time. The first community in a
succession is called a pioneer community, while the long-lived
community at the end of succession is called a climax community.
Pioneer and successional plant communities are said to change over
periods from 1 to 500 years. These changes—in plant numbers and the
mix of species—are cumulative. Climax communities themselves
change but over periods of time greater than about 500 years.
2 An ecologist who studies a pond today may well find it relatively
unchanged in a year’s time. Individual fish may be replaced, but the
number of fish will tend to be the same from one year to the next. We
can say that the properties of an ecosystem are more stable than the
individual organisms that compose the ecosystem.
小马托福
400-663-1986
3 At one time, ecologists believed that species diversity
made ecosystems stable. They believed that the greater the
diversity the more stable the ecosystem. Support for this
idea came from the observation that long-lasting climax
communities usually have more complex food webs and
more species diversity than pioneer communities. Ecologists
concluded that the apparent stability of climax ecosystems
depended on their complexity. To take an extreme example,
farmlands dominated by a single crop are so unstable that
one year of bad weather or the invasion of a single pest can
destroy the entire crop. In contrast, a complex climax
community, such as a temperate forest, will tolerate
considerable damage from weather to pests.
小马托福
400-663-1986
4 The question of ecosystem stability is complicated, however. The
first problem is that ecologists do not all agree what “stability” means.
Stability can be defined as simply lack of change. In that case, the
climax community would be considered the most stable, since, by
definition, it changes the least over time. Alternatively, stability can be
defined as the speed with which an ecosystem returns to a particular
form following a major disturbance, such as a fire. This kind of
stability is also called resilience. In that case, climax communities
would be the most fragile and the least stable, since they can require
hundreds of years to return to the climax state.
小马托福
400-663-1986
5 Even the kind of stability defined as simple lack of change is not always
associated with maximum diversity. At least in temperate zones, maximum
diversity is often found in mid-successional stages, not in the climax
community. Once a redwood forest matures, for example, the kinds of
species and the number of individuals growing on the forest floor are
reduced. In general, diversity, by itself, does not ensure stability.
Mathematical models of ecosystems likewise suggest that diversity does not
guarantee ecosystem stability—just the opposite, in fact. A more
complicated system is, in general, more likely than a simple system to break
down. A fifteen-speed racing bicycle is more likely to break down than a
child’s tricycle.
小马托福
400-663-1986
6Ecologists are especially interested to know what factors
contribute to the resilience of communities because climax
communities all over the world are being severely damaged
or destroyed by human activities. The destruction caused by
the volcanic explosion of Mount St. Helens, in the
northwestern United States, for example, pales in
comparison to the destruction caused by humans. We need
to know what aspects of a community are most important to
the community’s resistance to destruction, as well as its
recovery.
小马托福
400-663-1986
7 Many ecologists now think that the relative long-term
stability of climax communities comes not from diversity
but from the “patchiness” of the environment, an
environment that varies from place to place supports more
kinds of organisms than an environment that is uniform. A
local population that goes extinct is quickly replaced by
immigrants from an adjacent community. Even if the new
population is of a different species, it can approximately fill
the niche vacated by the extinct population and keep the
food web intact.
小马托福
400-663-1986
文章的主要观点：
P1：介绍‘succession’ ‘pioneer community’‘cc’定义；
P2：We can say that the properties of an ecosystem are
more stable than the individual organisms that compose
the ecosystem.
P3： At one time, ecologists believed that species
diversity made ecosystems stable
小马托福
400-663-1986
4 The question of ecosystem stability is complicated,
however. The first problem is that ecologists do not all
agree what “stability” means.
5Even the kind of stability defined as simple lack of
change is not always associated with maximum diversity.
小马托福
400-663-1986
6Ecologists are especially interested to know what
factors contribute to the resilience of communities
because climax communities all over the world are
being severely damaged or destroyed by human
activities.
7 Many ecologists now think that the relative longterm stability of climax communities comes not from
diversity but from the “patchiness” of the environment
小马托福
400-663-1986
○The changes that occur in an ecosystem from the pioneer to the climax community
can be seen in one human generation.
○A high degree of species diversity does not always result in a stable ecosystem.
○The level of resilience in a plant community contributes to its long-term stability.
○Ecologists agree that climax communities are the most stable types of ecosystems.
○Disagreements over the meaning of the term “stability” make it difficult to identify
the most stable ecosystems.
○The resilience of climax communities makes them resistant to destruction caused by
humans.
小马托福
小结
400-663-1986
：应该看什么？
首尾段的首尾句
如果段首一句和第二句有因果、转折的关系，都
要读。
如果段首一句是例子，去段尾找观点
小马托福
总结题的误区二
有人说，总结题不选细节，
可是。。。
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小马托福
400-663-1986
Geothermal Energy
1. Earth's internal heat, fueled by radioactivity, provides the
energy for plate tectonics and continental drift, mountain
building, and earthquakes. It can also be harnessed to drive
electric generators and heat homes. Geothermal energy becomes
available in a practical form when underground heat is transferred
by water that is heated as it passes through a subsurface region of
hot rocks (a heat reservoir) that may be hundreds or thousands of
feet deep. The water is usually naturally occurring groundwater
that seeps down along fractures in the rock; less typically, the water
is artificially introduced by being pumped down from the surface.
The water is brought to the surface, as a liquid or steam, through
holes drilled for the purpose.
小马托福
400-663-1986
2. By far the most abundant form of geothermal energy
occurs at the relatively low temperatures of 80° to 180°
centigrade. Water circulated through heat reservoirs in this
temperature range is able to extract enough heat to warm
residential, commercial, and industrial spaces. More than
20,000 apartments in France are now heated by warm
underground water drawn from a heat reservoir in a
geologic structure near Paris called the Paris Basin. Iceland
sits on a volcanic structure known as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
Reykjavik, the capital of Iceland, is entirely heated by
geothermal energy derived from volcanic heat.
小马托福
400-663-1986
3.Geothermal reservoirs with temperatures above 180° centigrade
are useful for generating electricity. They occur primarily in regions of
recent volcanic activity as hot, dry rock; natural hot water; or natural
steam. The latter two sources are limited to those few areas where
surface water seeps down through underground faults or fractures to
reach deep rocks heated by the recent activity of molten rock material.
The world's largest supply of natural steam occurs at The Geysers, 120
kilometers north of San Francisco, California. In the 1990s enough
electricity to meet about half the needs of San Francisco was being
generated there. This facility was then in its third decade of
production and was beginning to show signs of decline, perhaps
because of over development. By the late 1990s some 70 geothermal
electric-generating plants were in operation in California, Utah,
Nevada, and Hawaii, generating enough power to supply about a
million people. Eighteen countries now generate electricity using
geothermal heat.
小马托福
400-663-1986
4.Extracting heat from very hot, dry rocks presents a
more difficult problem: the rocks must be fractured to
permit the circulation of water, and the water must be
provided artificially. The rocks are fractured by water
pumped down at very high pressures. Experiments are
under way to develop technologies for exploiting this
resource.
小马托福
400-663-1986
5. Like most other energy sources, geothermal energy
presents some environmental problems. The surface of
the ground can sink if hot groundwater is withdrawn
without being replaced. In addition, water heated
geothermally can contain salts and toxic materials
dissolved from the hot rock. These waters present a
disposal problem if they are not returned to the ground
from which they were removed.
小马托福
400-663-1986
6. The contribution of geothermal energy to the world's energy future is
difficult to estimate. Geothermal energy is in a sense not renewable, because
in most cases the heat would be drawn out of a reservoir much more rapidly
than it would be replaced by the very slow geological processes by which heat
flows through solid rock into a heat reservoir. However, in many places (for
example, California, Hawaii, the Philippines, Japan, Mexico, the rift valleys of
Africa)the resource is potentially so large that its future will depend on the
economics of production. At present, we can make efficient use of only
naturally occurring hot water or steam deposits. Although the potential is
enormous, it is likely that in the near future geothermal energy can make
important local contributions only where the resource is close to the user and
the economics are favorable, as they are in California, New Zealand, and
Iceland. Geothermal energy probably will not make large-scale contributions
to the world energy budget until well into the twenty-first century, if ever.
小马托福
400-663-1986
Heat reservoirs with a temperature from 80° to 180° centigrade can be used, as in
France and Iceland, to heat buildings.
A number of countries now use geothermal reservoirs that contain water or steam
above 180° centigrade to generate electricity.
Most heat reservoirs with a temperature above 180° centigrade cannot be used for
energy because they are usually too close to recent volcanic activity.
The sinking of land above heat reservoirs and other environmental problems arise when
water is pumped into a heat reservoir under high pressure.
Experiments are under way to determine if geothermally heated waters could be used as
a source of certain minerals that have been dissolved out of hot rocks deep within Earth.
A number of issues, including how to extract heat from reservoirs that do not have a
natural supply of water, will significantly limit the use of geothermal energy for the
foreseeable future.
小马托福
总结题的奥秘

排除法

细节题

文章结构
400-663-1986
小马托福
破解总结题一
排除法
初步排除信息明显错误的选项；
对应选项与原文；
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小马托福
400-663-1986
破解总结题二
细节题
Q2. According to paragraph 1, which of the following is NOT true of
climax communities?
细节题选项：They remain stable for at least 500 years at a time.
○The changes that occur in an ecosystem from the pioneer to the
climax community can be seen in one human generation.
小马托福
400-663-1986
Q6. According to paragraph 4, which of the following is
true of climax communities?
细节题选项： They can be considered both the most and
the least stable communities.
○Ecologists agree that climax communities are the
most stable types of ecosystems
小马托福
破解总结题三
文章结构
总分结构（现象解释型：旧理论+新理论）
时间发展顺序结构
对比结构（多为图表题）
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小马托福
400-663-1986
结构特点
Introduction
Background+ Topic(结构)
Structure
Body
Sub topic (结构)+ analysis/evidence
Conclusion
Topic (结构)
小马托福
现象解释类 （The Cambrian Explosion）
文章结构：P1：定义，P2：科学家的疑问P3：关于缺
少fossil的解释，
P4: E formation---------P5: T formation--------P6 BS formation
P 7 why rapid?
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Little is known about the stages of evolution
during the Cambrian period, in part because
early animals were soft bodied and could
fossilize only under particular conditions.
While animal fossils from before the
Cambrian explosion have no modern
descendants, many animals that evolved
during the Cambrian explosion can be
assigned to modern groups. (BS)
Although the reasons for the rapid evolution
of animals during the Cambrian period are
not known, one proposed explanation is an
abundance of niches with a lack of
competitors.
小马托福
现象解释类 （Infantile Amnesia）
文章结构：P1：定义，P2：3个旧理论，
P3：理论一 P4：理论二 P5：理论三 P6：支持理论三
P7：三理论的关系+结论
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Frontal lobe function of the brain may need to
develop before memory retrieval can occur.（理
论一）
The opportunity to hear chronologically
narrated stories may help three-year-old
children produce long-lasting
memories.(理论二)
The contrasting ways in which young
children and adults process information
may determine their relative success in
remembering.（理论三）
小马托福
时间顺序类 （The Origins of
Cetaceans）
文章结构：P1 末尾结论：直
至最近才有过渡性的动物化石，
P2、3：P化石------P4：B化石-----P5：A化石
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Recent discoveries of fossils have helped
to show the link between land mammals
and cetaceans. （A化石/1段）
The discovery of Ambulocetus natans
provided evidence for a whale that lived
both on land and at sea.（A化石）
Fossils thought to be transitional forms
between walking mammals and
swimming whales were found.（A化石/1
段）
小马托福
时间顺序类 （Early Cinema）
P1：首句：直至projection 出现，
电影才成为大众消费
P2：K P3：projection的出现 P4、
5、6projection/cinema的影响
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Thomas Edison‘s design of the
Kinetoscope inspired the development of
large screen projection.（projection）
The development of projection
technology made it possible to project
images on a large screen（projection）
Once film images could be projected, the
cinema became form of mass
consumption. （projection）
小马托福
时间顺序类 （Powering the Industrial
Revolution）
P1：工业革命的重大变革之一即动力；
P2：Watt改善蒸汽机
P3：Watt蒸汽机的影响：工业及照明
P4：Watt蒸汽机对交通的影响
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Watt’s steam engine played a leading role in
greatly increasing industrial production of all
kinds.（对工业的影响）
In the mid-1700s James Watt
transformed an inefficient steam pump
into a fast, flexible, fuel-efficient engine.
（Watt改善蒸汽机）
The availability of steam engines was a
major factor in the development of
railroads, which solved a major
transportation problem.（对交通的影
响）
小马托福
400-663-1986
总结题TIPS
看title
Headline 常常是introduction part，即文章的一二段
优先排除带有绝对词的选项，
小马托福
400-663-1986
The Long-term Stability of Ecosystems
○The changes that occur in an ecosystem from the pioneer to the climax
community can be seen in one human generation.
○A high degree of species diversity does not always result in a stable ecosystem.
○The level of resilience in a plant community contributes to its long-term
stability.
○Ecologists agree that climax communities are the most stable types of
ecosystems.
○Disagreements over the meaning of the term “stability” make it difficult to
identify the most stable ecosystems.
○The resilience of climax communities makes them resistant to destruction
caused by humans.
小马托福
400-663-1986
The Long-term Stability of Ecosystems
○The changes that occur in an ecosystem from the pioneer to the climax
community can be seen in one human generation.
○A high degree of species diversity does not always result in a stable ecosystem.
○The level of resilience in a plant community contributes to its long-term
stability.
○Ecologists agree that climax communities are the most stable types of
ecosystems.
○Disagreements over the meaning of the term “stability” make it difficult to
identify the most stable ecosystems.
○The resilience of climax communities makes them resistant to destruction
caused by humans.
小马托福
400-663-1986
图表题
Opportunists
Competitors
Answer Choices
○Vary frequently the amount of energy they spend in body maintenance
○ Have mechanisms for protecting themselves from predation
○Succeed in locations where other organisms have been removed
○Have relatively short life spans
○Invest energy in the growth of large, strong structures
○Have populations that are unstable in response to climate conditions
○Can rarely find suitable soil for reproduction
○Produce individuals that can withstand changes in the environmental conditions
○Reproduce in large numbers
小马托福
图表题
文章多为对比（A vs. B）结构
建议回到原文找到过渡段；
选择正确信息，归类
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小马托福
400-663-1986
Opportunists and Competitors
看各段句首，找过渡段
全文共7段
第7段段首为The opposite of an opportunist is a
competitor.
小马托福
REDUCING WATER RESISTANCE
INCREASING THRUST
●
●
●
●
●
○The absence of scales from most of the
body
○The ability to take advantage of eddies
○The ability to feed and reproduce while
swimming
○Eyes that do not protrude
○Fins that are stiff, narrow, and smooth
○The habit of swimming with the mouth
open
○A high, narrow tail with swept-back tips
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Swimming Machines
第八段（过渡段）
There are adaptations that
increase the amount of
forward thrust as well as
those that reduce drag.
小马托福
400-663-1986
CONSTRUCTIVE
PROCESSES
DESTRUCTIVE
PROCESSSES
Geology and Landscape
●
●
●
●
●
第四段（过渡段）
○Collision of Earth's crustal plates
○Separation of continents
○Wind-driven sand
○Formation of grass roots in soil
○Earthquakes
○Volcanic activity
○Weather processes
There are adaptations that
increase the amount of
forward thrust as well as
those that reduce drag.
小马托福
信息正确是王道！
主要信息
400-663-1986
小马托福
TOEFL 必胜！
400-663-1986