Transcript Document

Biosphere
Carbon
cycle
Phosphorus
cycle
Nitrogen
cycle
Water
cycle
Heat in the environment
Heat
Heat
Heat
Oxygen
cycle
Oxygen (O2) Sun
Producer
Falling leaves
Precipitation and twigs
Carbon dioxide
(CO2)
Secondary
consumer
Primary consumer
(fox)
(rabbit)
Producers
Soil decomposers
Water
Soluble mineral nutrients
The Hydrologic (Water) Cycle
Figure 19-10
Page 494
Hazardous waste
injection well
Pesticides
Coal strip
mine runoff
De-icing
road salt
Pumping
well
Gasoline
station
Water
pumping
well
Landfil
l
Waste
lagoon
Accidental
spills
Buried
gasoline and
solvent tank
Cesspool
septic tank
Sewer
Leakage
from
faulty
casing
Discharge
Confined
aquifer
Groundwater
flow
Carbon Cycle
Nitrogen Cycle
© 2004 Brooks/Cole – Thomson Learning
Gaseous Nitrogen (N2)
In Atmosphere
Nitrogen
Fixation
by industry for
agriculture
Food Webs On
Land
Fertilizers
Nitrogen Fixation
bacteria convert to ammonia
(NH3+) ; this dissolves to form
ammonium (NH4+)
NH3, NH4+
in soil
loss by
leaching
uptake by
autotrophs
excretion, death,
decomposition
uptake by
autotrophs
Nitrogenous Wastes, Remains In
Soil
NO3 –
in soil
Ammonification
bacteria, fungi convert the
residues to NH3 , this
dissolves to form NH4+
1. Nitrification
bacteria convert NH4+ to
nitrate (NO2–)
Denitrification
by bacteria
2. Nitrification
bacteria convert NO2- to
nitrate (NO3-)
NO2 –
in soil
loss by
leaching
mining
excretion
FERTILIZER
GUANO
agriculture
weathering
uptake by
autotrophs
MARINE
FOOD
WEBS
DISSOLVED IN
OCEAN WATER
uptake by
autotrophs
weathering
DISSOLVED IN SOIL
WATER, LAKES,
RIVERS
death,
decomposition
sedimentation
MARINE SEDIMENTS
death,
decomposition
settling out
weathering
uplifting over
geolgic time
ROCKS
LAND
FOOD
WEBS
Atmosphere
Dimethyl
(DMS)
Hydrogen sulfide
(H2S)
+
Oxygen (O2)
Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
and
Sulfur trioxide (SO3)
+
Water (H2O)
Industries
Sulfuric acid
(H2SO4)
Volcanoes
and
hot springs
+
Ammonia (NH2)
Oceans
Ammonium sulfate
[(NH4)2SO4]
Fog and precipitation
(rain, snow)
Animals
Plants
Sulfate salts
(SO42-)
Decaying
organisms
Aerobic conditions
in soil and water
Sulfur
(S)
Hydrogen sulfide
(H2S)
Anaerobic
conditions in
soil and water
Example of genetic diversity in the peppered moth, England.
Harpy
eagle
Blue and
gold
macaw
Ocelot
Primary
to secondary
consumer
Squirrel
monkeys
Climbing
monstera palm
Slaty-tailed
trogon
Producer
to primary
consumer
Katydid
Green tree snake
Tree frog
Secondary to
higher-level
consumer
All producers and
consumers to
decomposers
Ants
Bromeliad
Fungi
Bacteria
Species diversity
Coastal chaparral Coniferous Desert Coniferous Prairie
Deciduous
and scrub
forest
forest
grassland forest
Coastal
mountain
ranges
Sierra
Nevada
Mountains
Rocky
Great
American Mountains
Desert
15,000 ft
10,000 ft
5,000 ft
Great Mississippi
Plains River Valley
Appalachian
Mountains
Average annual precipitation
100-125 cm (40-50 in.)
75-100 cm (30-40 in.)
50-75 cm (20-30 in.)
25-50 cm (10-20 in.)
Below 25 cm (0-10 in.)
Ecological diversity
Intermediate-colored snails
are selected against
Light
coloration
is favored
Dark
coloration
is favored
Natural
selection
Number of individuals
Number of individuals
Diversifying Natural Selection
Snails with light and dark
colors dominate
Coloration of snails
Coloration of snails
Number of individuals
with light and dark coloration
increases, and the number with
intermediate coloration decreases
Span worm
Wandering leaf insect
Poison dart frog
Viceroy butterfly mimics
monarch butterfly
Bombardier beetle
Hind wings of io moth
resemble eyes of a
much larger animal
Foul-tasting monarch
butterfly
When touched, the
snake caterpillar
changes shape to look
like the head of a snake
Number of individuals
Niche
separation
Generalist species
with a narrow niche
Niche
breadth
Region of
niche overlap
Resource use
Generalist species
with a broad niche
Many generalist species have a range of conditions within which they
can live, but may prefer or survive best in a particular environment.
Lower limit
of tolerance
Upper limit
of tolerance
No
Few
organisms organisms
Few
No
organisms organisms
Population Size
Abundance of organisms
Zone of
intolerance
Low
Zone of
physiological stress
Optimum range
Temperature
Zone of
physiological stress
Zone of
intolerance
High
Effects of being a generalist vs a specialist species.
(Specialist)
(Generalist)
Ten major global terrestrial biomes.
Primary succession
Exposed
rocks
Lichens
and mosses
Small herbs
and shrubs
Heath mat
Time
Jack pine,
black
spruce,
and aspen
Balsam fir,
paper birch,
and
white spruce
climax
community
Secondary succession
Mature oak-hickory forest
Annual
weeds
Perennial
weeds and
grasses
Shrubs
Young pine forest
Time
Arctic Circle
60°
EUROPE
NORTH
AMERICA
30°N
Tropic of Cancer
Pacific
Ocean
0°
150°
120°
Tropic of Capricorn
ASIA
Atlantic
Ocean
90°
SOUTH
AMERICA
AFRICA
30°W
0°
Pacific
Ocean
60°E
90°
150°
Indian
AUSTRALIA
Ocean
30°S
Antarctic Circle
60°
ANTARCTICA
Critical and endangered
Projected Status of Biodiversity
1998–2018
Threatened
Stable or intact
Habitat
loss
Habitat
degradation
Overfishing
Basic Causes
Climate
change
• Population growth
• Rising resource use
• No environmental
accounting
• Poverty
Introducing
nonnative
species
Commercial
hunting
and
poaching
Pollution
Predator
and
pest control
Sale of
exotic pets
and
decorative
plants
The Species Approach
Goal
Protect species from
premature extinction
Strategies
• Identify endangered
species
• Protect their critical
habitats
Tactics
• Legally protect
endangered species
• Manage habitat
The Ecosystem Approach
Goal
Protect populations of
species in their natural
habitats
Strategy
Preserve sufficient areas
of habitats in different
biomes and aquatic
systems
Tactics
• Protect habitat areas through
private purchase or
government action
• Propagate endangered
species in captivity
• Eliminate or reduce
populations of alien species
from protected areas
• Reintroduce species into
suitable habitats
• Manage protected areas to
sustain native species
• Restore degraded ecosystems
Kudzu, here in
western
Georgia, was
introduced
from Japan in
1876.
Expansion of the fire ant in
southern states.
1918
2000
Characteristics of
Successful
Invader Species
Characteristics of
Ecosystems Vulnerable
to Invader Species
• High reproductive rate,
short generation time
(r-selected species)
• Similar climate to habitat of
invader
• Pioneer species
• Absence of predators on
invading species
• Long lived
• High dispersal rate
• Release growth- inhibiting
chemicals into soil
• Generalists
• High genetic variability
• Early successional species
• Low diversity of native
species
• Absence of fire
• Disturbed by human activities
Grizzly
bear
NORTH
AMERICA
More than 60% of the
Pacific Northwest
coastal forest has
been cut down
40% of North America’s
range and cropland
has lost productivity
Spotted
owl
Blackfooted Florida
ferret panther
California
condor
Hawaiian
monk seal
Endangered species
6.0 or more children
per woman
Coral reef destruction
Every year 14,000
square kilometers of
rain forest is destroyed
in the Amazon Basin
Columbia has
lost one-third of
its forest
PACIFIC
OCEAN
Vanishing biodiversity
Fish catch in the north-west Atlantic has fallen
42% since its peak in 1973
Chesapeake Bay is overfished and polluted
Golden
toad
Mangroves
cleared
in Equador for
shrimp ponds
Humpback
whale
Manatee
Much of Everglades National Park has dried out
and lost 90% of its wading birds
Kemp’s
ridley
turtle
Half of the forest
in Honduras and
Nicaragua has
disappeared
Environmental degradation
St. Lawrence
beluga whale
Eastern
cougar
Black lion
tamarin
SOUTH
AMERICA
Southern
Chile’s rain
forest is
threatened
Little of Brazil’s
Atlantic forest
remains
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
Poland is one of
the world’s most
polluted countries
Imperial eagle
640,000 square kilometers
south of the Sahara have
turned to desert since 1940
EUROPE
Mediterranean
Many parts of
former Soviet Union
ASIA
are polluted with
industrial and radioactive waste
Central Asia from the
Middle East to China
has lost 72% of range
and cropland
Area of
Aral Sea has
Shrunk 46%
Snow leopard
Giant
panda
Japanese timber imports
are responsible for much
of the world’s tropical
deforestation
Saudi
Arabia
Deforestation in the Himalaya
Asian
causes flooding in Bangladesh
Liberia
elephant
Oman
Kouprey
Eritrea
Mali AFRICA
Yemen
90% of the coral reefs
India and
are threatened in the
Burkina Niger
Ethiopia
Sri Lanka
Philippines. All virgin
Faso
Benin Chad Golden
have almost
forest will be gone
Sierra
tamarin
no
rain
Nigeria
by 2010
Leone
forest left
Togo
Congo Uganda
Sao Tome
Somalia
Rwanda
In peninsular Malaysia
68% of the
Queen Alexandra’s
Burundi
almost all forests have
Birdwing butterfly
Congo’s
Angola
been cut
rain forest
Indonesia’s
is slated
Zambia
coral reefs are
Nail-tailed
for cleaning
INDIAN OCEAN
threatened
wallaby
and
Aye-aye
Fish catches in
mangrove AUSTALIA
Black
Southeast Atlantic
forests
Madagascar has
have dropped by more rhinoceros
Much of
have been
lost 66% of its
than 50% since 1973
Australia’s
cut
in
half
tropical forest
range and
cropland
have turned
to desert
Blue whale
A thinning of the ozone layer occurs
over Antarctica during summer
ANTARCTICA
Arithmetic density of world’s population.
Physiologic or nutritional density.
Population Size
Linear Growth
Time
© 2004 Brooks/Cole – Thomson Learning
Population size (N)
Population size (N)
K
Time (t)
Exponential Growth
Time (t)
Logistic Growth
Malthus’s theory compared to actual food & population rates.
Natural Increase Rate (NIR)
Crude Birth Rate (CBR)
Total Fertility Rate (TFR)
Crude Death Rate (CDR)
Infant Mortality Rate (IMR)
Life Expectancy at Birth
Population
(2002)
288 million
174 million
130 million
Brazil (moderately developed)
Nigeria (less developed)
Population
projected
(2025)
Infant
mortality
rate
346 million
219 million
205 million
6.8
33
75
Life
expectancy
77 years
69 years
52 years
Fertility
rate (TFR)
2.1
2.2
5.8
%Population
under
age 15
% Population
over
age 65
Per capita
GNI PPP
(2000)
United States (highly developed)
21%
33%
44%
13%
5%
3%
$34,100
$7,300
$800
© 2004 Brooks/Cole – Thomson Learning
One type of Demographic Transition Model
Developing Countries
85+
80-85
Male
75-79
Female
70-74
65-69
60-64
55-59
Age
50-54
45-49
40-44
35-39
30-34
25-29
20-24
15-19
10-14
5-9
0-4
300
200
© 2004 Brooks/Cole – Thomson Learning
100
0
100
Population (millions)
200
300
Population pyramids showing different rates of growth.
Number of workers supporting
each Social Security beneficiary
40
An example of
the dependency
rate.
1945
41.9 workers
30
20
1950
16.5
10
2075
1.9
0
1945
2000
Year
2050 2075