Transcript EPCglobal Concepts in the Supply Chain

AUTO-ID LABS
EPCglobal CONCEPTS IN THE SUPPLY CHAIN
Peter H. Cole
Professor of RFID Systems
University of Adelaide
Director of the Auto-ID Laboratory @ Adelaide
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AUTO-ID LABS
EPCglobal CONCEPTS IN THE SUPPLY CHAIN
Modified by Alfio R. Grasso
Deputy Director
Auto-ID Lab, ADELAIDE
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Outline
AUTO-ID LABS
RFID in the supply chain
The emerging EPC technology
The key concepts
Physics of RFID
RFID systems
Coupling calculations
RFID protocols
The work of Auto-ID Labs
Conclusions
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AUTO-ID LABS
PART 1
RFID IN THE SUPPLY CHAIN
Photos courtesy of Mirrabooka Systems
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Tag reading
Controller
AUTO-ID LABS
Transmitter
The black spot
Receiver
Label
Reader Tx typically 1W, 6dB gain Antenna
But propagation loss, resulting Rx at Tag typically µW
On tag, Some RF used for DC power, some used for modulation
More loss back to Reader Rx
Therefore a very weak reply is obtained
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AUTO-ID LABS
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Matrics (Symbol) Tags
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AUTO-ID LABS
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Alien Technology Tags
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AUTO-ID LABS
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Intermec Tags
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AUTO-ID LABS
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RFID Readers
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AUTO-ID LABS
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RFID Antenna(s)
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AUTO-ID LABS
The supply chain
Global Supply Chain
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Example applications
AUTO-ID LABS
What can you do with this technology ?
Supply chain benefits
 Reduce
out of stocks, reduce inventory, speed up
delivery, check freshness, track and trace, produce to
demand, identify sources of diversion, identify
counterfeiting, theft prediction, faster recalls

Consumer benefits
 Direct
order from home, smart appliances, (e.g.
microwave, washing machine, refrigerator), smart
healthcare, assisted living

New and less expected benefits
 Customized
products, smart recycling, checkout-less
stores
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AUTO-ID LABS
PART 2
THE EMERGING EPC TECHNOLOGY
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The Auto-ID Center
AUTO-ID LABS
Global, industry funded research program
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (1999)
Cambridge University (2000)
University of Adelaide (2002)
Japan, China, Switzerland (2003)

Mission
Create the internet of things
Research for the benefit of mankind

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About the Center
AUTO-ID LABS
End User Sponsors Include

Procter & Gamble, Gillette, Uniform Codes Council (UCC), CHEP
International, EAN International, International Paper, Philip Morris
Group, Johnson & Johnson, Wal-Mart, Yuen Foong Yu, United States
Postal Service, Westvaco, Unilever, Kimberly-Clark, Tesco, Coca-Cola,
Knight Ranger, Dai Nippon Printing, Department of Defense, United
Parcel Service
Vendor Sponsors Include

NCR, Savi Technologies, Sun Microsystems, Flint Ink, Markem,
Invensys, Sensormatic, Cash’s, Rafsec, Flexchip, Alien Technology,
Philips Semiconductor, SAP, Checkpoint, ThingMagic, Accenture, AC
Nielson, Avery Denison, Ember Corporation, PWC, Accenture
Trade Bodies

AIM Global, GCI, GMA, FMI, NACS, NACDS, AIM, POPAI, IMRA,
ARTS, UTSA
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The Auto-ID Center Vision
AUTO-ID LABS
The internet of things

Physical objects connected via the internet

Simple identifying labels on objects

Unlimited associated data in a data base

Connections via an intranet or the internet
Freely available world wide standards
High performance protocols and software
A scalable system not choked by expansion
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AUTO-ID LABS
PART 3
THE KEY CONCEPTS
Photo courtesy of Sugar Research Institute
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AUTO-ID LABS
Key concepts: then
The Electronic Product Code (EPC)
Tags bearing it and readers reading it

The Object Name Service (ONS)
The Physical Mark-up Language (PML)
Smart scalable networking for the physical
world
The savant, an event manager and router

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Key concepts: now
AUTO-ID LABS
Electronic product code

Formats for various
applications
Discovery services


ID system

Tags and readers
EPC information services
EPC middleware



Replaces the savant
ALE engine and
interfaces
Performs filtering a data
routing for clients
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ONS discovery service
Discovery services for
events



Enables users to securely
exchange information with
trading partners
EPCIS Capturing
EPCIS Accessing
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AUTO-ID LABS
Use of electromagnetic fields
Coupling is via electromagnetic fields
There is little margin for poor performance




Tag receives so little power
Reply is even weaker
Electronic Circuit has a threshold of operation
Electromagnetic Wave behaviour influenced by the
environment
 Metal, Moisture, etc!
RFID is a technology that is working on the edge of
performance
We must understand their properties

Many reasons why a poorly configured RFID system will
not work
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AUTO-ID LABS
PART 4
THE PHYSICS OF RFID
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The field vectors
AUTO-ID LABS
A full theory of electrodynamics, including
the effects of dielectric and magnetic
materials, must be based on the four field
vectors:




Electric field vector E
Magnetic field vector H
Electric flux density vector D
Magnetic flux density vector B
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AUTO-ID LABS
Faraday Laws – Free Space
Electromagnetic fields are represented by
curved lines in 3D Space. At any point in
space the field has a strength and direction.
In free space only two of the 4 are needed


E - Electric Field Vector
H - Magnetic Field Vector
E describes the force that will be experienced
by a charge at that point
H describes the force that a short wire
carrying a current will experience at that point
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Faraday and media
AUTO-ID LABS
The additional vectors D and B are flux
densities and are required to describe
the properties when polarised or
magnetised media are present.

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D - Electric flux density vector
B - Magnetic flux density vector
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AUTO-ID LABS
Material state vectors
P
M
for a dielectric material
for a magnetic material
D  0E  P
B  0 ( H  M )
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Laws in differential form –
Maxwell’s Equations
AUTO-ID LABS
B
 E  t
D
 H  J 
t
D  
Vortex
B  0
Two basic forms of field
•Vortex – Field lines go in closed loops (top 2)
•Source – Fields emerge outward from a source (bottom 2)
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Source
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Propagation
AUTO-ID LABS
Maxwell's equations tell us that even in
the absence of charges or currents at a
point, a varying field (either E or H) will
create a vortex of the other type of field
(H or E).
Predicted Electromagnetic propagation
of waves.
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AUTO-ID LABS
Electromagnetic propagation
Electric current creates a vortex of magnetic field
Magnetic field creates a vortex of electric field
Electric field creates a vortex of magnetic field
Propagation
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Electromagnetic waves
AUTO-ID LABS
They propagate with the velocity of light

(Light is an electromagnetic wave)
Velocity c is 300,000,000 m/s
Wavelength - frequency relation is c = fl


At 13.56 MHz = 3*108/13.56*106 = 22 m
At 915 MHz = 3*108/915*106 = 328 mm
But not all electromagnetic fields are
propagating waves; some are just local
energy storage fields
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Energy Storage
AUTO-ID LABS
From Maxwell’s equations



An electric current can create a vortex of
magnetic field
Electric charges can be a source of electric
flux density
Such field have the following properties
 They can store energy per unit volume locally,
but diminish rapidly (1/r3)
 They can cause energy to propagate away
from the source
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Boundaries
AUTO-ID LABS
Maxwell’s equations also tell us what
happens near a metallic surface

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Electric Field is perpendicular to the
surface
Magnetic Field is tangential to the surface
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AUTO-ID LABS
Boundary Condition: electric field
Electric field
Charge
Conducting surface
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AUTO-ID LABS
Boundary Condition: magnetic field
Magnetic field
or
displacement
current
Conducting plane
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AUTO-ID LABS
The basic laws: how they work
Gauss’s law
Electric flux deposits
charge
Electric field cannot just
go past a conductor, it must
turn and meet it at right
angles

B
+
V
_
Faraday’s law
Oscillating magnetic flux
induces voltage in a loop
that it links

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AUTO-ID LABS
Near and far field distributions
•Electric field launched by an electric dipole
•There is also a magnetic field not shown
•Near the antenna a source field is created
•Far field a vortex is created
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AUTO-ID LABS
Fields of a Magnetic Dipole
(oh dear)
j 3 M
Hr 
4
 2
2 j   j r

e

cos 
2
3 
(  r) 
 (  r)
j M
H 
4
 j
1
j   j r

e


sin 
2
3 
 ( r ) ( r ) ( r ) 
3
Near Field
Far field
j M
E 
4
3
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 j
1


2
(

r
)
(  r)

Peter H. Cole
  j r
e
sin 

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The radian sphere
AUTO-ID LABS
At r = 1,
r = l/2,
and

The phase factor e-jr is one radian

Inside this sphere the near field predominates

Outside this sphere the far field predominates
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Near and far fields
AUTO-ID LABS
The far field is an energy propagating
field
The near field is an energy storage field
Near field - far field boundary is l/2
Boundary

13.56 MHz = 3.5 m

915 MHz = 52 mm
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AUTO-ID LABS
PART 5
RFID SYSTEMS
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Issues in RFID Design
AUTO-ID LABS
Active or passive
Operating frequency
Electric or magnetic fields or both
Material (SAW) or microelectronic (MBS)
Focus on passive systems, active for the
future?
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AUTO-ID LABS
The usual way: backscatter
The most popular technology
Tag contains a microcircuit and an antenna
Tag is powered by the interrogation beam
Frequency of that beam is chosen for good
propagation
Tag contains an internal oscillator
Frequency of that oscillator is chosen for low
power consumption
Reply is offset from the interrogation
frequency by a small amount
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AUTO-ID LABS
Microelectronic Backscatter
Concept can be applied from 10 MHz to 10,000 MHz
Low propagation loss points to coupling using the far field
Low power consumption requires a low frequency
microcircuit
Reply is by modulation of the interrogation frequency
Junction capacitance
Label
antenna
Control
micro
circuit
Resonant circuit
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D.c. supply line
Switchable load
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Relevant Issues
AUTO-ID LABS
Range is determined largely by the ability to
obtain sufficient rectified voltage for the label
rectifier system
High quality factor resonance becomes important
in small tags


Relates to the need to obtain a large amount of stored
energy by tuning, i.e. exploiting resonance
But High Q tags can be de-tuned by the environment in
proximity
Reply is at sidebands of the interrogation
frequency
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Interesting features
AUTO-ID LABS
Near and far fields

Energy storage in the near field

Energy propagation in the far field

Radian sphere (r=l/2) is the boundary
For small tag antennas

Antenna gain or directivity in the far field is usually 1.5
 Tag will have a preferred orientation
Nulls for linear tag antenna

Some tags employ dual antennas
No far field radiation in the polar direction
Plenty of near field on the polar axis
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Label antennas
AUTO-ID LABS
Magnetic field – free space
Magnetic field against metal (boundary
conditions)
Electric field – free space
Electric field against metal (boundary conditions)
Electromagnetic field


Very small antennas respond to either the electric field
or the magnetic field
Somewhat larger antennas respond to both
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Planar printed coil
AUTO-ID LABS
13.56 MHz tag
Magnetic field normal to
plane of tag, i.e. coming
out of or into the slide
Induced voltage in coil
Voltage magnified by
resonance, coil tuned to
input capacitance of the
circuit
Not suitable for
mounting on metal, but
can mount normal to
metal surface.
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AUTO-ID LABS
Ferrite cored solenoid
 er 
 ir
1  N (  ir  1)
Suitable for placing against metal
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AUTO-ID LABS
Electric field bow tie
Small antenna that just respond to electric field, which in
this case is in the horizontal direction
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AUTO-ID LABS
Electric field box structure
Electric Field is vertical, bottom plate could be placed on
the metal surface.
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AUTO-ID LABS
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Electric Field Boundaries
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AUTO-ID LABS
Electromagnetic field antenna
Dimensions are no longer a small fraction of a wave
length, so it responds to both electric and magnetic
fields
Operating principles are less clear
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AUTO-ID LABS
PART 6
COUPLING CALCULATIONS
Photo taken at Hendersons Automotive Technologies Pty Ltd
26 May 2005
Photo courtesy of the National Library Board Singapore
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Field creation structures
AUTO-ID LABS
Near magnetic field

Made by current carrying loops
Near electric field

Made by charged electrodes
Far electromagnetic field

Made by propagation from an originally near
field
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Fields
AUTO-ID LABS
In the near field we can create either electric or
magnetic fields
In the far field (propagating wave) both magnetic and
electric fields are created in equal (energy stored in a
unit volume)
However, in the far field multi-path propagation
(reflections) can create standing waves, such that
there are regions of extinction of electric field (nulls)
and doubling of magnetic fields, and vice versa
Hence good to have diversity by either moving the
tag past a reader antenna, or having the reader
antenna moving in relation to the tag (multiplexed
antennas)
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Near and far field coupling
theories
AUTO-ID LABS
Common feature: a label driving field is created, how
much signal can be extracted?
In the near field of the interrogator, the driving field is
mostly energy storage, and the amount radiated does not
affect the coupling, but does affect the EMC regulator.
Various techniques to create energy storage without
radiating are then applicable.
Some theorems on optimum antenna size are of interest.
In the far field of the interrogator, the relation between
what is coupled to and what is regulated is more direct,
and such techniques are not applicable.
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Far field coupling theory
AUTO-ID LABS
Pr  Aer  Power flow per unit area
Power flow per unit area 
Aer 
g t Pt
4 r 2
g r l2
4
Pr  S r Ae 
gl2
Sr
4
 l 
Pr
 g r gt 
 4 r 

Pt


2
In the far field the power received by the label depends upon
the power flow per unit area (label size).
Ae is therefore a Figure of Merit

The larger the wavelength λ the better!
The received power is NOT magnified by resonance, but
resonance may be used for power matching!
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AUTO-ID LABS
Near field coupling theory
Vc 
Vd 
Reactive power flowing
Volume density of reactive
in the untuned label coil when it is short circuited 
power created by the interrogat or at the label position

Reactive power flowing in the inductor of the interrogat or field creation coil 
Volume density of reactive power created by the interrogat or at the label position 
V
P2
 c Q1Q 2
P1
Vd
In the near field, the power received by the label depends
on the energy stored per unit volume in the space occupied
by the label
Vc is the Figure of Merit
Power received is magnified by resonance
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AUTO-ID LABS
Measures of exciting field
In the far field
Wv   S r
Near field antennas, the strength of excitation is
reactive power density per unit volume Wv
Far field antennas, the strength of excitation is
the power flow per unit area Sr
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Significant conclusions
AUTO-ID LABS
Coupling volumes for well shaped planar
electric and magnetic field labels are size
dependent and similar
3
L
Magnetic Vc 
2
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3
2L
Electric Vc 
3
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Optimum Frequency?
AUTO-ID LABS
Coupling Volumes are similar!
Ae – Figure of Merit suggests that for
lower frequencies of operation, the
longer the wavelength, then in the far
field this leads to a large effective area.
So what is wrong with operation at low
frequencies?
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Quality Factors
AUTO-ID LABS
40
Magnetic Qr 
3
β L)
13
Electric Qr 
3
β L)
Radiation quality factors for both types of label formed
within a square of side L are size dependent and similar
These are calculated results for sensibly shaped
antennas
These show that by the time such antennas are matched,
the Q factors required are so large, that operating
bandwidths are impossibly small.
High Q antennas are prone to detuning due to the
environment.
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AUTO-ID LABS
Optimum operating frequency
The optimum frequency for operation of an
RFID system in the far field is the lowest
frequency for which a reasonable match to
the radiation resistance of the label antenna
can be achieved, at the allowed size of label,
without the label or matching element losses
intruding.
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AUTO-ID LABS
PART 7
RFID PROTOCOLS
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AUTO-ID LABS
What is a protocol?
Signalling waveforms
Command set
Operating procedure
A back end interface
whereby the identities of a population of tags
in the field of a reader may be determined,
and the population otherwise managed.
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AUTO-ID LABS
Constraints on protocols
Electromagnetic compatibility regulations
Differ with frequency range and jurisdiction
Some convergence is occurring

Reader to reader interference
Readers confusing tags
Readers blocking other reader receivers

Simplicity (as reflected in chip size)
Maybe that influences reliability as well

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Auto-ID Center protocols
AUTO-ID LABS
The Auto-ID Center defined
The Class 1 UHF protocol

The Class 1 HF protocol

The Class 0 UHF protocol

EPCglobal has defined in addition
Class 1 Generation 2 UHF protocol

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AUTO-ID LABS
Why are they different?
Different field properties at HF and UHF
Near and far field – different field confinement
Different field penetration in materials
Different silicon circuit possibilities and costs
Different electromagnetic regulations

Read only memory technologies enable
miniaturisation
A high performance UHF system was
available and was modified by the Center to
manage privacy concerns
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AUTO-ID LABS
Protocols: the major divide
Tree walking
More forward link signalling
Prolonged periods of interrupted signalling
Partial information of tag population remains
relevant

Adaptive round (terminating aloha)
Less forward link signalling
Long periods of un-modulated reader carrier
Reader signalling is less
No information from one response about others

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AUTO-ID LABS
Characteristics: similarities
Both can select subsets of tags for
participation
Overt selection may reveal what is selected
Forms of less overt selection are possible
Tag “sleeping” has a role in both
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AUTO-ID LABS
Tree scanning concepts
R
oot
V
e
iw
n
i gpon
it
D
escent
ds
ia
t nce
V
e
iw
ed
nodes
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AUTO-ID LABS
Concept of the adaptive round
Labels reply once per round, in randomly
chosen slots
A group of n slots forms a round
The number of slots in a round varies as
needed
Tags giving already collected replies moved to
slot F
S
o
l
t
F S
o
l
0
t
S
o
l
1
t
B
e
g
n
i
n
n
i
g
o
f
r
o
u
n
d
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S
o
l
2
t
S
l
o
t
3
S
o
l
4
t
S
o
l
n
t
1
E
n
d
o
f
r
o
u
n
d
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AUTO-ID LABS
The C1G2 protocol
Labels have an adjustable probability of
replying on each query or repeated query
Probability is adjusted to about a third
Empty slots, singly occupied slots and multiply
occupied slots are roughly equi-probable
A wide range of forward and reverse signalling
parameters are defined
Some of them allow for narrow band reply
signalling separated from the interrogation
carrier
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AUTO-ID LABS
PART 6
CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS
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Auto-ID Center accomplishment
AUTO-ID LABS
By September 2003 …
Tag reading protocols



UHF Class 1
UHF Class 0
HF Class 1
Tags (commercial chips to all protocols available)
Savant


Data filtering and event management software system
Version 1 distributed, version 2 in development
Field trial

Three phases, then nearing completion
PML

Two phases of development
Establishment of research laboratories

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USA, England, Australia, China, Japan, Switzerland
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Transformation to Laboratories
and EPCglobal
AUTO-ID LABS
Transformed…
 …26 October 2003
Auto-ID Labs


Performs fundamental research related to EPC System
Builds communities not already using EPC System
 Australasian Adoption Research Initiative
EPC Global


Manages and develops standards
Markets EPC System
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7th Auto-ID Lab
AUTO-ID LABS
April 1st, 2005:

26 May 2005
ICU, South Korea accredited as the 7th
Auto-ID Lab
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AUTO-ID LABS
26 May 2005
The Auto-ID Laboratories
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AUTO-ID LABS
Laboratories research program
Associate laboratories are contemplated
96 research topics (original six labs)

36 related to propagation and chip design

27 related to networking and software

35 related to business applications, privacy and
security
Korean lab interested in mobile sensor
networks
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EPCglobal network: outline
AUTO-ID LABS
Electronic product code

Formats for various
applications
Discovery services


ID system

Tags and readers
EPC middleware



ONS discovery service
Discovery services for
events
Replaces the savant
ALE engine and
interfaces
Performs filtering a data
routing for clients
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Peter H. Cole
EPC information
services

Enables users to
securely exchange
information with trading
partners
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EPCglobal structure
AUTO-ID LABS
EPCglobal Board
of Governors
GS1
Architectural
Review Committee
Business Steering
Committee
President,
EPCglobal
Technology
Steering Committee
Business Action
Group - CP
Software Action
Group
Work Groups
Work Groups
Business Action
Group - HLS
Work Groups
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GS1 US
Staff
Auto-ID Labs
Public Policy
Steering Committee
Hardware Action
Group
Work Groups
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AUTO-ID LABS
Membership (December 2004)
End
Users
Europe
Austria
Denmark
Belgium
France
Finland
Germany
Ireland
Italy
Netherlands
Russia
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
UK
Latin America
Brazil
Colombia
Solution
Providers
Total
0
1
0
4
0
11
0
0
2
1
0
2
2
11
34
3
1
2
6
2
12
1
2
2
0
3
0
0
9
42
3
2
2
10
2
23
1
2
4
1
3
2
2
20
76
1
1
2
1
0
1
2
1
3
End
Users
Global %
Asia
Australia
Japan
China
Singapore
Taiwan
India
Hong Kong
New Zealand
Sth Korea
Middle East Africa
Israel
South Africa
17.0%
0.7%
Nth America
Canada
US
Solution
Providers
Total
1
7
0
2
0
1
0
1
1
13
0
14
1
2
9
6
17
0
11
60
1
21
1
4
9
7
17
1
12
73
16.3%
0
0
0
1
2
3
1
2
3
0.7%
2
138
140
6
148
154
8
286
294
65.5%
449 members
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Global %
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81
Working Groups
AUTO-ID LABS
Business Steering Committee (BSC)



Fast Moving Consumer Goods (FMCG)
Healthcare and Life Sciences (HLS)
Transport and Logistics (TLS)
Technical Steering Committee (TSC)


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Hardware Action Group (HAG)
Software Action Group (SAG)
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FMCG – Working Groups
AUTO-ID LABS
Data Exchange
European Adoption Programme (EAP)
Pilot and Implementation (P&I)
Reusable Transport Items (RTI)
Strategic Planning
Tag Data Standards (TDS) => SAG
Tag and Inlay Standards
Asian Adoption Program (AAP)
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HLS – Working Groups
AUTO-ID LABS
Strategy
Policy
Process
Information
Technology
Research
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HAG – Working Groups
AUTO-ID LABS
Class 1 Generation 2 (Work completed)
Gen 2 Testing & Certification
Others planned
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SAG Working Groups
AUTO-ID LABS
Reader Protocol
Reader Management
Filtering and Collection
ONS
Security
Tag Data Translation
EPCIS
EPCIS Phase 2
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EPCglobal network: roles and
interfaces
AUTO-ID LABS
Push
Sharing
EPCIS
EPCIS
Accessing
Accessing
Application
Application
Firewall
Partner
Partner
Accessing
Accessing
Application
Application
EPCIS Query Interface
EPCIS
EPCIS
Repository
Repository
Security
EPCIS Capture Interface
EPCIS
EPCISCapturing
Capturing
Application
Application
Capture
Business
Xactions
& F&C Events
F&C Interface
F&C
F&CMiddleware
Middleware
Systems
Mgmt
Reader Protocol / Mgmt Interface
Reader
Reader
Tag Protocol (Gen2) / Tag Data Std
2004 EPCglobal
26 May 2005
Push
Sharing
• Green boxes
represent Specs.
• Blue boxes
represent roles, not
necessarily discrete
components
Tag
Tag
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AUTO-ID LABS
Standards Development Process
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AUTO-ID LABS
Transport & Logistics (NEW)
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Future Working Groups ?
AUTO-ID LABS
Automotive
Aerospace
Electronics
Biologics
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EPCglobal Conference
AUTO-ID LABS
http://www.epcglobalus.org/conference/
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AUTO-ID LABS
PART 7
CONCLUSIONS
Photo taken at Carlton & United Beverages
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What to take away: 1
AUTO-ID LABS
Simplicity of passive RFID for identity
The weakness of the label reply
Ubiquity of objects in supply chain
Vision of the Auto-ID Center
Electric and magnetic field concepts
Source and vortex concepts
Frequency wave length relation c = fl
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What to take away: 2
AUTO-ID LABS
Near and far field concepts
Radian sphere: size and significance
Boundary conditions near metal
Behaviour of simple antennas
Varieties of fast reading protocol
Transformation of Center
Auto-ID Labs research
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What to take away: 3
AUTO-ID LABS
EPCglobal networking concepts

Standardised EPC

Standardised readers, tags and protocols

Standardised communication between roles
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AUTO-ID LABS
Thank you
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Peter H. Cole EPCglobal concepts in the Supply Chain
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AUTO-ID LABS
EXCISIONS
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AUTO-ID LABS
The complete laws: 1
Faraday's law
The circulation of the electric field vector E around a closed
contour is equal to minus the time rate of change of magnetic
flux through a surface bounded by that contour, the positive
direction of the surface being related to the positive direction of
the contour by the right hand rule.
Ampere's law as modified by Maxwell
The circulation of the magnetic field vector H around a closed
contour is equal to the sum of the conduction current and the
displacement current passing through a surface bounded by that
contour, with again the right hand rule relating the senses of the
contour and the surface.
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AUTO-ID LABS
The complete laws: 2
Gauss' law for the electric flux
The total electric flux (defined in terms of the D vector)
emerging from a closed surface is equal to the total
conduction charge contained within the volume bounded
by that surface.
Gauss' Law for the magnetic flux
The total magnetic flux (defined in terms of the B vector)
emerging from any closed surface is zero.
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