Transcript Network Layer - Northwestern Networks Group

Project 2
 DUE Wed: 02/24
Network Layer
4-1
Project 2
 DUE Wed: 02/24
 DUE Mon: 02/29
Network Layer
4-2
Homework 3
 OUT: 02/17
 IN: due 02/26
Network Layer
4-3
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction
 4.2 Virtual circuit and
datagram networks
 4.5 Routing algorithms
 Link state
 Distance Vector
4
Network layer
 transport segment from




sending to receiving host
on sending side
encapsulates segments
into datagrams
on rcving side, delivers
segments to transport
layer
network layer protocols
in every host, router
router examines header
fields in all IP datagrams
passing through it
application
transport
network
data link
physical
network
data link
physical
network
data link
physical
network
data link
physical
network
data link
physical
network
data link
physical
network
network
data link
data link
physical
physical
network
data link
physical
network
data link
physical
network
data link
physical
network
data link
physical
application
transport
network
data link
physical
5
Key Network-Layer Functions
 forwarding: move
packets from router’s
input to appropriate
router output
 routing: determine
route taken by
packets from source
to dest.

analogy:
 routing: process of
planning trip from
source to dest
 forwarding: process
of getting through
single interchange
Routing algorithms
6
Interplay between routing and forwarding
routing algorithm
local forwarding table
header value output link
0100
0101
0111
1001
3
2
2
1
value in arriving
packet’s header
0111
1
3 2
7
Connection setup
 3rd important function in some network architectures:
ATM, frame relay, X.25
 before datagrams flow, two end hosts and intervening
routers establish virtual connection
 routers get involved
 network vs transport layer connection service:
 network: between two hosts (may also involve
intervening routers in case of VCs)
 transport: between two processes

8
Network service model
Q: What service model for “channel” transporting
datagrams from sender to receiver?
example services for
individual datagrams:
 guaranteed delivery
 guaranteed delivery
with less than 40 msec
delay
example services for a
flow of datagrams:
 in-order datagram
delivery
 guaranteed minimum
bandwidth to flow
 restrictions on
changes in interpacket spacing
9
Network layer service models:
Network
Architecture
Internet
Service
Model
Guarantees ?
Congestion
Bandwidth Loss Order Timing feedback
best effort none
ATM
CBR
ATM
VBR
ATM
ABR
ATM
UBR
constant
rate
guaranteed
rate
guaranteed
minimum
none
no
no
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
no
yes
no
no (inferred
via loss)
no
congestion
no
congestion
yes
no
yes
no
no
10
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction
 4.2 Virtual circuit and
datagram networks
 4.5 Routing algorithms
 Link state
 Distance Vector
11
Network layer connection and
connection-less service
 Datagram network provides network-layer
connectionless service
 VC network provides network-layer
connection service
 Analogous to the transport-layer services,
but:
Service: host-to-host
 No choice: network provides one or the other
 Implementation: in the core

12
Virtual circuits
“source-to-dest path behaves much like telephone
circuit”


performance-wise
network actions along source-to-dest path
 call setup, teardown for each call before data can flow
 each packet carries VC identifier (not destination host
address)
 every router on source-dest path maintains “state” for
each passing connection
 link, router resources (bandwidth, buffers) may be
allocated to VC
13
VC implementation
A VC consists of:
1.
2.
3.
Path from source to destination
VC numbers, one number for each link along
path
Entries in forwarding tables in routers along
path
 Packet belonging to VC carries a VC
number.
 VC number must be changed on each link.

New VC number comes from forwarding table
14
Forwarding table
VC number
22
12
1
Forwarding table in
northwest router:
Incoming interface
1
2
3
1
…
2
32
3
interface
number
Incoming VC #
12
63
7
97
…
Outgoing interface
3
1
2
3
…
Outgoing VC #
22
18
17
87
…
Routers maintain connection state information!
15
Virtual circuits: signaling protocols
 used to setup, maintain teardown VC
 used in ATM, frame-relay, X.25
 not used in today’s Internet
application
transport 5. Data flow begins
network 4. Call connected
data link 1. Initiate call
physical
6. Receive data application
3. Accept call transport
2. incoming call network
data link
physical
16
Datagram networks
 no call setup at network layer
 routers: no state about end-to-end connections
 no network-level concept of “connection”
 packets forwarded using destination host address
 packets between same source-dest pair may take
different paths
application
transport
network
data link 1. Send data
physical
application
transport
2. Receive data network
data link
physical
17
Datagram Forwarding
table
routing algorithm
local forwarding table
dest address output link
address-range 1
address-range 2
address-range 3
address-range 4
3
2
2
1
4 billion IP addresses, so
rather than list individual
destination address
list range of addresses
(aggregate table entries)
IP destination address in
arriving packet’s header
1
3 2
18
Datagram Forwarding table
Destination Address Range
Link Interface
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000
through
11001000 00010111 00010111 11111111
0
11001000 00010111 00011000 00000000
through
11001000 00010111 00011000 11111111
1
11001000 00010111 00011001 00000000
through
11001000 00010111 00011111 11111111
2
otherwise
3
Q: but what happens if ranges don’t divide up so nicely?
19
Longest prefix matching
Longest prefix matching
when looking for forwarding table entry for given
destination address, use longest address prefix that
matches destination address.
Destination Address Range
Link interface
11001000 00010111 00010*** *********
0
11001000 00010111 00011000 *********
1
11001000 00010111 00011*** *********
2
otherwise
3
Examples:
DA: 11001000 00010111 00010110 10100001
Which interface?
DA: 11001000 00010111 00011000 10101010
Which interface?
20
Datagram or VC network: why?
Internet
 data exchange among
ATM
 evolved from telephony
computers
 human conversation:
 “elastic” service, no strict
 strict timing, reliability
timing req.
requirements
 “smart” end systems
 need for guaranteed
(computers)
service
 can adapt, perform
 “dumb” end systems
control, error recovery
 telephones
 simple inside network,
 complexity inside
complexity at “edge”
network
 many link types
 different characteristics
 uniform service difficult
21
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction
 4.2 Virtual circuit and
datagram networks
 4.5 Routing algorithms
 Link state
 Distance Vector
22
Interplay between routing and
forwarding
routing algorithm
local forwarding table
header value output link
0100
0101
0111
1001
3
2
2
1
value in arriving
packet’s header
0111
1
3 2
23
Graph abstraction
5
2
u
2
1
Graph: G = (N,E)
v
x
3
w
3
1
5
z
1
y
2
N = set of routers = { u, v, w, x, y, z }
E = set of links ={ (u,v), (u,x), (v,x), (v,w), (x,w), (x,y), (w,y), (w,z), (y,z) }
Remark: Graph abstraction is useful in other network contexts
Example: P2P, where N is set of peers and E is set of TCP connections
24
Graph abstraction: costs
5
2
u
v
2
1
x
• c(x,x’) = cost of link (x,x’)
3
w
3
1
5
z
1
y
- e.g., c(w,z) = 5
2
• cost could always be 1, or
inversely related to bandwidth,
or inversely related to
congestion
Cost of path (x1, x2, x3,…, xp) = c(x1,x2) + c(x2,x3) + … + c(xp-1,xp)
Question: What’s the least-cost path between u and z ?
Routing algorithm: algorithm that finds least-cost path
25
Routing Algorithm classification
Global or decentralized
information?
Global:
 all routers have complete
topology, link cost info
 “link state” algorithms
Decentralized:
 router knows physicallyconnected neighbors, link
costs to neighbors
 iterative process of
computation, exchange of
info with neighbors
 “distance vector” algorithms
Static or dynamic?
Static:
 routes change slowly
over time
Dynamic:
 routes change more
quickly
 periodic update
 in response to link
cost changes
26
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction
 4.2 Virtual circuit and
datagram networks
 4.5 Routing algorithms
 Link state
 Distance Vector
27
A Link-State Routing Algorithm
Dijkstra’s algorithm
 net topology, link costs
known to all nodes
 accomplished via “link
state broadcast”
 all nodes have same info
 computes least cost paths
from one node (‘source”) to
all other nodes
 gives forwarding table
for that node
 iterative: after k
iterations, know least cost
path to k dest.’s
Notation:
 c(x,y): link cost from node
x to y; = ∞ if not direct
neighbors
 D(v): current value of cost
of path from source to
dest. v
 p(v): predecessor node
along path from source to v
 N': set of nodes whose
least cost path definitively
known
28
Dijsktra’s Algorithm
1 Initialization:
2 N' = {u}
3 for all nodes v
4
if v adjacent to u
5
then D(v) = c(u,v)
6
else D(v) = ∞
7
8 Loop
9 find w not in N' such that D(w) is a minimum
10 add w to N'
11 update D(v) for all v adjacent to w and not in N' :
12
D(v) = min( D(v), D(w) + c(w,v) )
13 /* new cost to v is either old cost to v or known
14 shortest path cost to w plus cost from w to v */
15 until all nodes in N'
29
Dijkstra’s algorithm: example
D(v) D(w) D(x) D(y) D(z)
Step
0
1
2
3
4
5
N'
p(v)
p(w)
p(x)
u
uw
uwx
uwxv
uwxvy
uwxvyz
7,u
6,w
6,w
3,u
∞
∞
5,u
∞
5,u 11,w
11,w 14,x
10,v 14,x
12,y
p(y)
p(z)
Notes:


construct shortest path
tree by tracing
predecessor nodes
ties can exist (can be
broken arbitrarily)
x
5
9
7
4
8
3
u
w
y
3
7
v
2
z
4
30
Dijkstra’s algorithm: example (2)
Step
0
1
2
3
4
5
N'
u
ux
uxy
uxyv
uxyvw
uxyvwz
D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w)
2,u
5,u
2,u
4,x
2,u
3,y
3,y
D(x),p(x)
1,u
D(y),p(y)
∞
2,x
D(z),p(z)
∞
∞
4,y
4,y
4,y
5
2
u
v
2
1
x
3
w
3
1
5
z
1
y
2
31
Dijkstra’s algorithm: example (2)
Resulting shortest-path tree from u:
v
w
u
z
x
y
Resulting forwarding table in u:
destination
link
v
x
(u,v)
(u,x)
y
(u,x)
w
(u,x)
z
(u,x)
32
Dijkstra’s algorithm, discussion
Algorithm complexity: n nodes
 each iteration: need to check all nodes, w, not in N
 n(n+1)/2 comparisons: O(n2)
 more efficient implementations possible: O(nlogn)
Oscillations possible:
 e.g., link cost = amount of carried traffic
D
1
1
0
A
0 0
C
e
1+e
e
initially
B
1
2+e
A
0
D 1+e 1 B
0
0
C
… recompute
routing
0
D
1
A
0 0
C
2+e
B
1+e
… recompute
2+e
A
0
D 1+e 1 B
e
0
C
… recompute
33