3rd Edition: Chapter 4 - International Institute of
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Transcript 3rd Edition: Chapter 4 - International Institute of
Network Layer
Introduction
Virtual circuit and
datagram networks
Routing algorithms
Link state
Distance Vector
Hierarchical routing
What’s inside a router
Input ports
Switching ports
Output ports
Queuing
IP: Internet Protocol
Datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6
Routing in the
Internet
RIP
OSPF
BGP
Broadcast and
multicast routing
Network Layer
The Internet Network layer
Host, router network layer functions:
Transport layer: TCP, UDP
Network
layer
IP protocol
•addressing conventions
•datagram format
•packet handling conventions
Routing protocols
•path selection
•RIP, OSPF, BGP
forwarding
table
ICMP protocol
•error reporting
•router “signaling”
Link layer
physical layer
Network Layer
Network Layer
Introduction
Virtual circuit and
datagram networks
Routing algorithms
Link state
Distance Vector
Hierarchical routing
What’s inside a router
Input ports
Switching ports
Output ports
Queuing
IP: Internet Protocol
Datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6
Routing in the
Internet
RIP
OSPF
BGP
Broadcast and
multicast routing
Network Layer
IP datagram format
IP protocol version
number
header length
(bytes)
“type” of data
max number
remaining hops
(decremented at
each router)
upper layer protocol
to deliver payload to
how much overhead
with TCP?
20 bytes of TCP
20 bytes of IP
= 40 bytes + app
layer overhead
32 bits
head. type of
length
ver
len service
fragment
16-bit identifier flgs
offset
upper
time to
Internet
layer
live
checksum
total datagram
length (bytes)
for
fragmentation/
reassembly
32 bit source IP address
32 bit destination IP address
Options (if any)
data
(variable length,
typically a TCP
or UDP segment)
E.g. timestamp,
record route
taken, specify
list of routers
to visit.
Network Layer
IP Fragmentation & Reassembly
network links have MTU
(max.transfer size) - largest
possible link-level frame.
different link types,
different MTUs
large IP datagram divided
(“fragmented”) within net
one datagram becomes
several datagrams
“reassembled” only at final
destination
IP header bits used to
identify, order related
fragments
fragmentation:
in: one large datagram
out: 3 smaller datagrams
reassembly
Network Layer
IP Fragmentation and Reassembly
Example
4000 byte
datagram
MTU = 1500 bytes
1480 bytes in
data field
offset =
1480/8
length ID fragflag offset
=4000 =x
=0
=0
One large datagram becomes
several smaller datagrams
length ID fragflag offset
=1500 =x
=1
=0
length ID fragflag offset
=1500 =x
=1
=185
length ID fragflag offset
=1040 =x
=0
=370
Network Layer
Network Layer
Introduction
Virtual circuit and
datagram networks
Routing algorithms
Link state
Distance Vector
Hierarchical routing
What’s inside a router
Input ports
Switching ports
Output ports
Queuing
IP: Internet Protocol
Datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6
Routing in the
Internet
RIP
OSPF
BGP
Broadcast and
multicast routing
Network Layer
IP Addressing: introduction
IP address: 32-bit
identifier for host,
router interface
interface: connection
between host/router
and physical link
router’s typically have
multiple interfaces
host typically has one
interface
IP addresses
associated with each
interface
223.1.1.1
223.1.2.1
223.1.1.2
223.1.1.4
223.1.1.3
223.1.2.9
223.1.3.27
223.1.2.2
223.1.3.2
223.1.3.1
223.1.1.1 = 11011111 00000001 00000001 00000001
223
1
1
Network Layer
1
Subnets
IP address:
subnet part (high
order bits)
host part (low order
bits)
What’s a subnet ?
device interfaces with
same subnet part of IP
address
can physically reach
each other without
intervening router
223.1.1.1
223.1.2.1
223.1.1.2
223.1.1.4
223.1.1.3
223.1.2.9
223.1.3.27
223.1.2.2
subnet
223.1.3.1
223.1.3.2
network consisting of 3 subnets
Network Layer
Subnets
Recipe
To determine the
subnets, detach each
interface from its
host or router,
creating islands of
isolated networks.
Each isolated network
is called a subnet.
223.1.1.0/24
223.1.2.0/24
223.1.3.0/24
Subnet mask: /24
Network Layer
Subnets
223.1.1.2
How many?
223.1.1.1
223.1.1.4
223.1.1.3
223.1.9.2
223.1.7.0
223.1.9.1
223.1.7.1
223.1.8.1
223.1.8.0
223.1.2.6
223.1.2.1
223.1.3.27
223.1.2.2
223.1.3.1
223.1.3.2
Network Layer
IP addressing: CIDR
CIDR: Classless InterDomain Routing
subnet portion of address of arbitrary length
address format: a.b.c.d/x, where x is # bits in
subnet portion of address
subnet
part
host
part
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000
200.23.16.0/23
Network Layer
IP addresses: how to get one?
Q: How does host get IP address?
hard-coded by system admin in a file
Wintel: control-panel->network->configuration>tcp/ip->properties
UNIX: /etc/rc.config
DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol:
dynamically get address from as server
“plug-and-play”
(more in next chapter)
Network Layer
IP addresses: how to get one?
Q: How does network get subnet part of IP
addr?
A: gets allocated portion of its provider ISP’s
address space
ISP's block
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000
200.23.16.0/20
Organization 0
Organization 1
Organization 2
...
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000
11001000 00010111 00010010 00000000
11001000 00010111 00010100 00000000
…..
….
200.23.16.0/23
200.23.18.0/23
200.23.20.0/23
….
Organization 7
11001000 00010111 00011110 00000000
200.23.30.0/23
Network Layer
Hierarchical addressing: route aggregation
Hierarchical addressing allows efficient advertisement of routing
information:
Organization 0
200.23.16.0/23
Organization 1
200.23.18.0/23
Organization 2
200.23.20.0/23
Organization 7
.
.
.
.
.
.
Fly-By-Night-ISP
“Send me anything
with addresses
beginning
200.23.16.0/20”
Internet
200.23.30.0/23
ISPs-R-Us
“Send me anything
with addresses
beginning
199.31.0.0/16”
Network Layer
Hierarchical addressing: more specific
routes
ISPs-R-Us has a more specific route to Organization 1
Organization 0
200.23.16.0/23
Organization 2
200.23.20.0/23
Organization 7
.
.
.
.
.
.
Fly-By-Night-ISP
“Send me anything
with addresses
beginning
200.23.16.0/20”
Internet
200.23.30.0/23
ISPs-R-Us
Organization 1
200.23.18.0/23
“Send me anything
with addresses
beginning 199.31.0.0/16
or 200.23.18.0/23”
Network Layer
IP addressing: the last word...
Q: How does an ISP get block of addresses?
A: ICANN: Internet Corporation for Assigned
Names and Numbers
allocates addresses
manages DNS
assigns domain names, resolves disputes
Network Layer
Private Addresses
10.0.0.0/8
172.16.0.0-172.31.0.0/12
192.168.0.0/16
Network Layer
Network Layer
Introduction
Virtual circuit and
datagram networks
Routing algorithms
Link state
Distance Vector
Hierarchical routing
What’s inside a router
Input ports
Switching ports
Output ports
Queuing
IP: Internet Protocol
Datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6
Routing in the
Internet
RIP
OSPF
BGP
Broadcast and
multicast routing
Network Layer
ICMP: Internet Control Message Protocol
used by hosts & routers to
communicate network-level
information
error reporting:
unreachable host, network,
port, protocol
echo request/reply (used
by ping)
network-layer “above” IP:
ICMP msgs carried in IP
datagrams
ICMP message: type, code plus
first 8 bytes of IP datagram
causing error
Type
0
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
Code
0
0
1
2
3
6
7
0
8
9
10
11
12
0
0
0
0
0
description
echo reply (ping)
dest. network unreachable
dest host unreachable
dest protocol unreachable
dest port unreachable
dest network unknown
dest host unknown
source quench (congestion
control - not used)
echo request (ping)
route advertisement
router discovery
TTL expired
bad IP header
Network Layer
Traceroute and ICMP
Source sends series of
UDP segments to dest
First has TTL =1
Second has TTL=2, etc.
Unlikely port number
When nth datagram arrives
to nth router:
Router discards datagram
And sends to source an
ICMP message (type 11,
code 0)
Message includes name of
router& IP address
When ICMP message
arrives, source calculates
RTT
Traceroute does this 3
times
Stopping criterion
UDP segment eventually
arrives at destination host
Destination returns ICMP
“host unreachable” packet
(type 3, code 3)
When source gets this
ICMP, stops.
Network Layer
Network Layer
Introduction
Virtual circuit and
datagram networks
Routing algorithms
Link state
Distance Vector
Hierarchical routing
What’s inside a router
Input ports
Switching ports
Output ports
Queuing
IP: Internet Protocol
Datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6
Routing in the
Internet
RIP
OSPF
BGP
Broadcast and
multicast routing
Network Layer
IPv6
Initial motivation: 32-bit address space soon
to be completely allocated.
Additional motivation:
header format helps speed processing/forwarding
header changes to facilitate QoS
IPv6 datagram format:
fixed-length 40 byte header
no fragmentation allowed
Network Layer
IPv6 Header (Cont)
Priority: identify priority among datagrams in flow
Flow Label: identify datagrams in same “flow.”
(concept of“flow” not well defined).
Next header: identify upper layer protocol for data
Network Layer
Other Changes from IPv4
Checksum: removed entirely to reduce
processing time at each hop
Options: allowed, but outside of header,
indicated by “Next Header” field
ICMPv6: new version of ICMP
additional message types, e.g. “Packet Too Big”
multicast group management functions
Network Layer
Transition From IPv4 To IPv6
Not all routers can be upgraded simultaneous
no “flag days”
How will the network operate with mixed IPv4 and
IPv6 routers?
Tunneling: IPv6 carried as payload in IPv4
datagram among IPv4 routers
Network Layer
Tunneling
Logical view:
Physical view:
E
F
IPv6
IPv6
IPv6
A
B
E
F
IPv6
IPv6
IPv6
IPv6
A
B
IPv6
tunnel
IPv4
IPv4
Network Layer
Tunneling
Logical view:
Physical view:
A
B
IPv6
IPv6
A
B
C
IPv6
IPv6
IPv4
Flow: X
Src: A
Dest: F
data
A-to-B:
IPv6
E
F
IPv6
IPv6
D
E
F
IPv4
IPv6
IPv6
tunnel
Src:B
Dest: E
Src:B
Dest: E
Flow: X
Src: A
Dest: F
Flow: X
Src: A
Dest: F
data
data
B-to-C:
IPv6 inside
IPv4
B-to-C:
IPv6 inside
IPv4
Flow: X
Src: A
Dest: F
data
E-to-F:
IPv6
Network Layer
Network Layer
Introduction
Virtual circuit and
datagram networks
Routing algorithms
Link state
Distance Vector
Hierarchical routing
What’s inside a router
Input ports
Switching ports
Output ports
Queuing
IP: Internet Protocol
Datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6
Routing in the
Internet
RIP
OSPF
BGP
Broadcast and
multicast routing
Network Layer
Intra-AS Routing
Also known as Interior Gateway Protocols (IGP)
Most common Intra-AS routing protocols:
RIP: Routing Information Protocol
OSPF: Open Shortest Path First
IGRP: Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (Cisco
proprietary)
Network Layer
Network Layer
Introduction
Virtual circuit and
datagram networks
Routing algorithms
Link state
Distance Vector
Hierarchical routing
What’s inside a router
Input ports
Switching ports
Output ports
Queuing
IP: Internet Protocol
Datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6
Routing in the
Internet
RIP
OSPF
BGP
Broadcast and
multicast routing
Network Layer
RIP ( Routing Information Protocol)
Distance vector algorithm
Included in BSD-UNIX Distribution in 1982
Distance metric: # of hops (max = 15 hops)
From router A to subsets:
u
v
A
z
C
B
D
w
x
y
destination hops
u
1
v
2
w
2
x
3
y
3
z
2
Network Layer
RIP advertisements
Distance vectors: exchanged among
neighbors every 30 sec via Response
Message (also called advertisement)
Each advertisement: list of up to 25
destination nets within AS
Network Layer
RIP: Example
z
w
A
x
D
B
y
C
Destination Network
w
y
z
x
….
Next Router
Num. of hops to dest.
….
....
A
B
B
--
2
2
7
1
Routing table in D
Network Layer
RIP: Example
Dest
w
x
z
….
Next
C
…
w
hops
1
1
4
...
A
Advertisement
from A to D
z
x
Destination Network
w
y
z
x
….
D
B
C
y
Next Router
Num. of hops to dest.
….
....
A
B
B A
--
Routing table in D
2
2
7 5
1
Network Layer
RIP: Link Failure and Recovery
If no advertisement heard after 180 sec -->
neighbor/link declared dead
routes via neighbor invalidated
new advertisements sent to neighbors
neighbors in turn send out new advertisements (if
tables changed)
link failure info quickly propagates to entire net
poison reverse used to prevent ping-pong loops
(infinite distance = 16 hops)
Network Layer
RIP Table processing
RIP routing tables managed by application-level
process called route-d (daemon)
advertisements sent in UDP packets, periodically
repeated
routed
routed
Transprt
(UDP)
network
(IP)
link
physical
Transprt
(UDP)
forwarding
table
forwarding
table
network
(IP)
link
physical
Network Layer
Network Layer
Introduction
Virtual circuit and
datagram networks
Routing algorithms
Link state
Distance Vector
Hierarchical routing
What’s inside a router
Input ports
Switching ports
Output ports
Queuing
IP: Internet Protocol
Datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6
Routing in the
Internet
RIP
OSPF
BGP
Broadcast and
multicast routing
Network Layer
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
“open”: publicly available
Uses Link State algorithm
LS packet dissemination
Topology map at each node
Route computation using Dijkstra’s algorithm
OSPF advertisement carries one entry per neighbor
router
Advertisements disseminated to entire AS (via
flooding)
Carried in OSPF messages directly over IP (rather than TCP
or UDP
Network Layer
OSPF “advanced” features (not in RIP)
Security: all OSPF messages authenticated (to
prevent malicious intrusion)
Multiple same-cost paths allowed (only one path in
RIP)
For each link, multiple cost metrics for different
TOS (e.g., satellite link cost set “low” for best effort;
high for real time)
Integrated uni- and multicast support:
Multicast OSPF (MOSPF) uses same topology data
base as OSPF
Hierarchical OSPF in large domains.
Network Layer
Hierarchical OSPF
Network Layer
Hierarchical OSPF
Two-level hierarchy: local area, backbone.
Link-state advertisements only in area
each nodes has detailed area topology; only know
direction (shortest path) to nets in other areas.
Area border routers: “summarize” distances to nets
in own area, advertise to other Area Border routers.
Backbone routers: run OSPF routing limited to
backbone.
Boundary routers: connect to other AS’s.
Network Layer
Network Layer
Introduction
Virtual circuit and
datagram networks
Routing algorithms
Link state
Distance Vector
Hierarchical routing
What’s inside a router
Input ports
Switching ports
Output ports
Queuing
IP: Internet Protocol
Datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6
Routing in the
Internet
RIP
OSPF
BGP
Broadcast and
multicast routing
Network Layer
Internet inter-AS routing: BGP
BGP (Border Gateway Protocol):
the de
facto standard
BGP provides each AS a means to:
1.
2.
3.
Obtain subnet reachability information from
neighboring ASs.
Propagate the reachability information to all
routers internal to the AS.
Determine “good” routes to subnets based on
reachability information and policy.
Allows a subnet to advertise its existence
to rest of the Internet: “I am here”
Network Layer
BGP basics
Pairs of routers (BGP peers) exchange routing info over semi-
permanent TCP conctns: BGP sessions
Note that BGP sessions do not correspond to physical links.
When AS2 advertises a prefix to AS1, AS2 is promising it will
forward any datagrams destined to that prefix towards the
prefix.
AS2 can aggregate prefixes in its advertisement
3c
3a
3b
AS3
1a
AS1
2a
1c
1d
1b
2c
AS2
2b
eBGP session
iBGP session
Network Layer
eBGP and iBGP
eBGP is BGP between two ASes
Advertises prefixes to other ASes
Implements routing policy, (whether or not re-advertise
prefixes received from BGP peers)
eBGP peers are directly connected
iBGP
Advertises some or all prefixes learnt from eBGP
Advertises ISP’s customer prefixes (For example a
network that is recently allocated to some customer)
These are not directly connected but form a fully
connected logical graph
Network Layer
Distributing reachability info
With eBGP session between 3a and 1c, AS3 sends prefix
reachability info to AS1.
1c can then use iBGP do distribute this new prefix reach info
to all routers in AS1
1b can then re-advertise the new reach info to AS2 over the
1b-to-2a eBGP session
When router learns about a new prefix, it creates an entry
for the prefix in its forwarding table.
3c
3a
3b
AS3
1a
AS1
2a
1c
1d
1b
2c
AS2
2b
eBGP session
iBGP session
Network Layer
Path attributes & BGP routes
When advertising a prefix, advert includes BGP
attributes.
prefix + attributes = “route”
Two important attributes:
AS-PATH: contains the ASs through which the advert
for the prefix passed: AS 67 AS 17
NEXT-HOP: Indicates the specific internal-AS router to
next-hop AS. (There may be multiple links from current
AS to next-hop-AS.)
When gateway router receives route advert, uses
import policy to accept/decline.
Network Layer
eBGP Next Hop
Network Layer
BGP route selection
Router may learn about more than 1 route
to some prefix. Router must select route.
Elimination rules:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Local preference value attribute: policy
decision
Shortest AS-PATH
Closest NEXT-HOP router: hot potato routing
Additional criteria
Network Layer
BGP messages
BGP messages exchanged using TCP.
BGP messages:
OPEN: opens TCP connection to peer and
authenticates sender
UPDATE: advertises new path (or withdraws old)
KEEPALIVE keeps connection alive in absence of
UPDATES; also ACKs OPEN request
NOTIFICATION: reports errors in previous msg;
also used to close connection
Network Layer
BGP routing policy
legend:
B
W
provider
network
X
A
customer
network:
C
Y
Figure 4.5-BGPnew: a simple BGP scenario
A,B,C are provider networks
X,W,Y are customer (of provider networks)
X is dual-homed: attached to two networks
X does not want to route from B via X to C
.. so X will not advertise to B a route to C
Network Layer
BGP routing policy (2)
legend:
B
W
provider
network
X
A
customer
network:
C
Y
A advertises to B the path AW
Figure 4.5-BGPnew: a simple BGP scenario
B advertises to X the path BAW
Should B advertise to C the path BAW?
No way! B gets no “revenue” for routing CBAW since neither
W nor C are B’s customers
B wants to force C to route to w via A
B wants to route only to/from its customers!
Network Layer
Why different Intra- and Inter-AS routing ?
Policy:
Inter-AS: admin wants control over how its traffic
routed, who routes through its net.
Intra-AS: single admin, so no policy decisions needed
Scale:
hierarchical routing saves table size, reduced update
traffic
Performance:
Intra-AS: can focus on performance
Inter-AS: policy may dominate over performance
Network Layer
Network Layer
Introduction
Virtual circuit and
datagram networks
Routing algorithms
Link state
Distance Vector
Hierarchical routing
What’s inside a router
Input ports
Switching ports
Output ports
Queuing
IP: Internet Protocol
Datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6
Routing in the
Internet
RIP
OSPF
BGP
Broadcast and
multicast routing
Network Layer
Broadcast Routing
Deliver packets from source to all other nodes
Source duplication is inefficient:
duplicate
duplicate
creation/transmission
R1
R1
duplicate
R2
R2
R3
R4
source
duplication
R3
R4
in-network
duplication
Source duplication: how does source
determine recipient addresses?
Network Layer
In-network duplication
Flooding: when node receives brdcst pckt,
sends copy to all neighbors
Problems: cycles & broadcast storm
Controlled flooding: node only brdcsts pkt
if it hasn’t brdcst same packet before
Node keeps track of pckt ids already brdcsted
Or reverse path forwarding (RPF): only forward
pckt if it arrived on shortest path between
node and source
Spanning tree
No redundant packets received by any node
Network Layer
Spanning Tree
First construct a spanning tree
Nodes forward copies only along spanning
tree
A
B
c
F
A
E
B
c
D
F
G
(a) Broadcast initiated at A
E
D
G
(b) Broadcast initiated at D
Network Layer
Spanning Tree: Creation
Center node
Each node sends unicast join message to center
node
Message forwarded until it arrives at a node already
belonging to spanning tree
A
A
3
B
c
4
E
F
1
2
B
c
D
F
5
E
D
G
G
(a) Stepwise construction
of spanning tree
(b) Constructed spanning
tree
Network Layer
Multicast Routing: Problem Statement
Goal: find a tree (or trees) connecting
routers having local mcast group members
tree: not all paths between routers used
source-based: different tree from each sender to rcvrs
shared-tree: same tree used by all group members
Shared tree
Source-based trees
Approaches for building mcast trees
Approaches:
source-based tree: one tree per source
shortest path trees
reverse path forwarding
group-shared tree: group uses one tree
minimal spanning (Steiner)
center-based trees
…we first look at basic approaches, then specific
protocols adopting these approaches
Shortest Path Tree
mcast forwarding tree: tree of shortest
path routes from source to all receivers
Dijkstra’s algorithm
S: source
LEGEND
R1
1
2
R4
R2
3
R3
router with attached
group member
5
4
R6
router with no attached
group member
R5
6
R7
i
link used for forwarding,
i indicates order link
added by algorithm
Reverse Path Forwarding
rely on router’s knowledge of unicast
shortest path from it to sender
each router has simple forwarding behavior:
if (mcast datagram received on incoming link
on shortest path back to center)
then flood datagram onto all outgoing links
else ignore datagram
Reverse Path Forwarding: example
S: source
LEGEND
R1
R4
router with attached
group member
R2
R5
R3
R6
R7
router with no attached
group member
datagram will be
forwarded
datagram will not be
forwarded
• result is a source-specific reverse SPT
– may be a bad choice with asymmetric links
Reverse Path Forwarding: pruning
forwarding tree contains subtrees with no mcast
group members
no need to forward datagrams down subtree
“prune” msgs sent upstream by router with no
downstream group members
LEGEND
S: source
R1
router with attached
group member
R4
R2
P
R5
R3
R6
P
R7
P
router with no attached
group member
prune message
links with multicast
forwarding
Shared-Tree: Steiner Tree
Steiner Tree: minimum cost tree
connecting all routers with attached group
members
problem is NP-complete
excellent heuristics exists
not used in practice:
computational complexity
information about entire network needed
monolithic: rerun whenever a router needs to
join/leave
Center-based trees
single delivery tree shared by all
one router identified as
to join:
“center” of tree
edge router sends unicast join-msg addressed
to center router
join-msg “processed” by intermediate routers
and forwarded towards center
join-msg either hits existing tree branch for
this center, or arrives at center
path taken by join-msg becomes new branch of
tree for this router
Center-based trees: an example
Suppose R6 chosen as center:
LEGEND
R1
3
R2
router with attached
group member
R4
2
R5
R3
1
R6
R7
1
router with no attached
group member
path order in which join
messages generated