Transcript Snímek 1

Management Theory and
Organizational Communication
L3
Ing. Jiří Šnajdar
2013
Communication management
Communications management is the systematic
planning, implementing, monitoring, and revision of
all the channels of communication within an
organization, and between organizations; it also
includes the organization and dissemination of new
communication directives connected with an
organization, network, or communications
technology.
Communication management
Aspects of communications management include
developing corporate communication strategies,
designing internal and external communications
directives, and managing the flow of information,
including online communication. New technology
forces constant innovation on the part of
communications managers.
Communication management
As a manager, one must take a contingency
approach to communicating with their employees
and communicate on a personal level. It’s the
manager’s responsibility to determine if their
employee’s personality falls under the following:
Reactors, Workaholics, Persisters, Dreamers,
Rebels, or Promoters.
Communication management and project
management
In project management, communication
management must address the following questions:
• What information needs to flow in and out of the
project?
• Who needs what information?
• When is the information needed?
• What is the format of the information?
• Who will be responsible for transmitting and
providing the information?
Communication planning is the art and science of reaching
target audiences using marketing communication channels
such as advertising, public relations, experiences or direct
mail for example. It is concerned with deciding who to
target, when, with what message and how.
The communication plan serves as a guide to the
communication and sponsorship efforts throughout the
duration of the project. It is a living and working document
and is updated periodically as audience needs change. It
explains how to convey the right message, from the right
communicator, to the right audience, through the right
channel, at the right time. It addresses the six basic
elements of communications: communicator, message,
communication channel, feedback mechanism,
receiver/audience, and time frame.
A communication plan includes:
• “Who” - the target audiences
• “What” – the key messages that are trying to be
articulated
• “When” – timing, it will specify the appropriate time
of delivery for each message
• “Why” – the desired outcomes
• “How” - the communication vehicle (how the
message will be delivered)
• “By whom” - the sender (determining who will
deliver the information and how he or she is
chosen)
Is communication a tool used by management to
maintain power?
Reason for examining organizational communication
is based on theories of management and
organizations. Exploring the evolution of these
theories makes it clear that communication is
essential and not periphelar to organizational
success.
Clasical Theory of Management (Frederic Taylor).
The clasical theory is the assumption that an
organization is alike to a machine. The best way to
maximize organizatioal productivity, is to consider
the most efficient ways to structure the machine and
control the machine´s operations. The employees to
be part of the machine that is the organization. An
efficient employee would maximize organizational
performance. Therefore managementwould need to
consider how employees can do a job most
productively.
The communications responsibilities for classical
managers involved explaining the tasks to these
human parts of the machine, and articulating the
policies that governed the work of the machine.
One plank in the philosophy is that employees were
essentially lazy and left without precise direction,
would underperform.
Reason 1 - employees migth observe a slower
worker recieving the same compensation and decide
not to exert effort because there was no monetary
motivation to do so.
Reason 2 – hourly compensation was based on the
assumption that it took a certain period of time to
complete the particluar task. If good employees
could demonstrate that it could take less time, then
the emloyers might reduce the rate. Tests could
determine the most efficient way to complete a workrelated task. Employees need to be aware of their
tasks. Management needed to know the best way to
do these tasks. Management would have to
articulate the best way to do the job and the rules
that governed their work.
In order toestablish authority, maintain discipline and
create espirit de corps, management must effectively
communicate with workforce.
Cocept:
Scalar chain and the gangplank - refers to this
hierarchy – centtralized authority.
Interdepartmental communication – each department
should work in harmony with the rest and divisions
must be precisly informed as to the share they must
také. The appropriate communication channels must
link the departments.
Written vs. Oral communication
Most classical theorists favored written communication
as opposed to oral face to face interactions. Written
messages could serve as records, and in this way
establish authority and facilitate organizational control.
Nonverbal communication
An effective manager is obliged to get most from all
subordinates toward the objectivnes of the organization.
The spoken or written word can convey certain
informationb. The nonverbally communicated messages
present in modeling behavior can coplement or
undermine these other verbalized messages.
Organizational assessment
An audit is essentially an assessment that provides
picture of the communication quality in the organization,
with periodic audits of the organization.
Money and motivation
A significant feature of classical theory is the
assumption that employees are motivated strictly by
money. Clasical theory belive that people come to work
primarily because they must. I tis important to state
that clasical theory consider money and other financial
remuneration the primary, factor that motivates
employees to work. The management needs to inform
employees about what they must do and how they
must do it. Employees needed to know about financial
incentives so that they might work hard to obtain
remuneration. Nearly all communication in classical
organization is directed downward, from superior to
subordinate. ( Do you see any merit in classical
theory?)
Human relations theory.
The findings of the studies provided a new way to think
about management which was called human relations
theory. The studies argued that under right conditions
work could be enjoyable and that employees were
motivated by observation and recognition.
Therefore in order to motivate employees, managers
need to communicate not only information about job
tasks and policies, but also information that recognizes
worker´s accomplishments, respect their
sencitivitiesand essentially, acknowledges that they are
feeling animate entities.
Human resources theory.
Raymond Miles suggested that a new
conceptualization of the employee as a resource who
could, should, and desired to be productive would be
more valuble. Human resourse theory would argue that
not only employees need to be recognized for what
they do, but management must recognize that
employees can contribute in the ways that are
untapped.
Human resources theory.
• Employees feel useful and important, because this
sense of participation will act as lubricant that will
get employees to do what management wants them
to do.
• Managers consider employees capable of making
meaningful contributions. Management has the
responsibility to create communication channels and
cultivate a climate that will facilitate employee
participation.
Human resources theory.
• Managers wish their supervisors practiced human
resources theory, but actually manage human
relations approaches. Most managers actually doubt
that their emploxees can make meaningful
contributions while considering themselves as
capable as their supervisors.
• Therefore the human resources model may have
merit if the managers acknowledge that their
subordinates are as capable as the managers
themselves. The management need to believe that
employees can be a resource.
Theory X and theory Y
Theory X tenets are similar to classical theory
principals. Specifically a theory X manager would
assume that employees do not want to work and only
seek employment for the financial benefits that work
provides.
A theory X manager would assume that employees
would certainly not naturally seek out resposibility. If
you are supporter of theory X you would think:
Theory X
• Students who are not compelled to attend class
would stay away.
• Construction workers who were not supervised
would be less than diligent regarding meeting code
specifications for safety.
• Office workeres who were not threatened with
financial punishment for coming in late would
regularly tardy.
• Salespeople who are not on commission would sell
less aggressively and successfully than those who
were on commission.
Theory Y
Advocates of theory Y would argue that under the right
circumstances work could be enjoyable and even
desirable. Proponents of theory Y assume that
employees naturally seek out work and are motivated
not only by money, but by recognition and job
satisfaction. If you are suporter of theory Y you would
believe that:
• If a class was interesting and challenging students
would come to class even if they were not required
to do so.
• Unsupervised construction workers would still be
diligent because people také pride in doing work
well.
Theory Y
• Office workers would be punctual rgardless of
penalties because they would want to be perceived
as resposible and professional.
• Salespeople will work diligently regardless of
whether they would get paid per sale because
selling is what thjey do and they would want excel at
their work for personal fulfillment.
Which theory do you think is correct?
Problems with theory Y
Let´s consider some of the reasons why human
relations, human resources and theory Y approaches
might not work. There are some related reasons.
1. Problem with human relations and human
resources theory is that they are too short sighted
to be sound. They make an assumption about
workers that could not be universally true. The
assumption that people under the right
circumstances enjoy work as much as play might
be true for the majority of us, but there are still
many individuals who are delighted by a life of
absolute leisure.
Problems with theory Y
2. A reason why the human resources theory is flawed
is related to the first. It may be true that under
the right conditions people will enjoy work as
much as play. Many of us are likely not to be
working under right conditions.
A principal of human resources theory is that
employees are motivated by recognition and
acknowledgement. In order for the theory to work, then
management needs to be effective at communicating
recognition. Consider some likely factors that could
interfere with successful communication of recognition.
Credibility – if all employees receive the same
message of recognition i tis likely to assume that the
message will loose credibility.
Skill level - some people have difficulty orally
expressing praise and criticism.
Choice of channel – if an employer posts a bulletin
thanking employees, or sends an e-mail, it may have
less of an impact than a visit to that staff member´s
office and a face-to-face conversation.
Selecting an inappropriate channel for
communicating can affect the value of the message.
Theory Y has meaningful components.
To be successful, management has to understand
that many individuals desire to do something
meaningful with their hours at work. In many
companies, only marginal managerial attention is
focused on the problems of employee capibility and
motivation.
System theory
According to systems theory, an organization is a
composite of interdependant units that must work
cooperatively in order to effectively survive.
The theory holds that organizations should be viewed
as open systems. This means that an organization
cannot live nor thrive without interacting with both its
internal and external enviroment.
These interdependant units must communicate with
each other in order for the organization to be effective
and thrive. In addition for the organization to succed,
it mustinteract effectively with external audiences.
Systems theory does not disregard principles of
classical or human relations theory. In systems theory
questions of job duty, chain of command, span of
control, and decision making, classical principels are
equal in importance to questions of attitude, morale
behavior, role and personality, human relations
concerns.
The relationship between systems theory and
organizational communication is obvious., in belive in
systems theory, interdepartmental communication
bocomes a prerequisite for survival.
The language of systems theory.
Open and closed systems – in open systém in which
material continually enteres from and leaves onto the
outside enviroment. A closed organizational systém is
separated from the outside enviroment, would
eventually be unable to sustain itself.
Hierarchical ordering – any organization can be
cosidered a systém that functions within a
suprasystem and is dependant on the quality of its
subsystem.
The language of systems theory.
Relevant environment – relevant environment is that
part of the external environment that is relevant to the
system.
Permeability – input/output in order for systém to
operate efficiently the boundries of each unit within
systém should be permable. That is information must
be able to get from one subsytem to other and from
relevant environment to the focal systém. The word
permeable typically referes to substance that can be
penetrated.
The language of systems theory.
Entropy and negative entropy – a closed systém will
eventually become disabled because of the disorder
that results from not interacting with its relevant
environment and its related subsytems. That state of
disorder is refered to as entropy. Negative entropy
that results from interactions with the environment, is
systém that hold organizations cannot function
without permable boundries.
Requisite variety – this principle of systém asserts
that the complexity of the relevant environment has
to be met with similar requisite complexity by the
systém.
The language of systems theory.
Homeostasis – an organization must achive balance
by responding to the communicated input that enters
the systém through permeable boundries. This
balance or state of homeostasis is necessary in order
for the organization to survive.
Equifinality – the principle of equifinality is in direct
contrast to the classical theory, that there i sone way
to the job. Equifinality suggests that there are
multiple methods that can result in the same
outcome. The final result may be equal despite
diverse methods that were used to arrive at the same
results.
Cultural theory
Cultural theory as applied to organization referes to
the perspective that there is a phenomenon that can
be called organizational culture and that this
phenomenon is a factor affecting organizational life
and success. This perspective is relevant to
organizational communication study because cultural
theory assert that communication is central to
evolution of organizational culture.
Critical theory
Critical theory deals with the abuse of power. It
derives its name because the theory advocates
relentles criticism of all those institutions that abuse
power and consequently oppres others.
Critical theory consider organizations as site
domination and cosider communication within
organization as ideological and power laden, not as a
nutral medium for transmitting information.
Critical theory
The management can:
• Privilege certain organizational players input and
ignore others.
• Control access to technology and stipulate the rules
that govern the use of websites and individual
expression on the website.
• Determine the communicative processes that are
employed for decision making.
• Prescribe the chain of command, thereby legislating
who should talk to whom.
• Use language as sematic kryptonite that debilitates
employees.
Critical theory appears to divide the organization into
three discrete groups:
The oppresors, the oppresed and the enlightened. In
fact most of us, if we were willing to do some
introspection, might see that we have often both been
oppresed and oppresors, and we have certain roles
which compelled us to behave in ways that others
consider oppresive.
People do abuse power in organization and that
abuse is facilitated by communication practices. The
abuse of power can affect employee morale and
organizational success.
Crisis communication
Organizations that are exceptionally profitable and
well managed can encounter sudden problems that
may rock their entreprise.
When crisis occur, organization are compelled to
communicate to various audiences. The quality of
these communications is crucial for the success of the
organization.
Effective communication during this times can
transform potential disasteres into positive situation for
the company.
What is crisis communication?
Crisis communication involves identifying internal and
external recievers who must recieve information
during times of crisis.
What is a crisis?
L.Barton defines a crisis as a major, unpredictable
event. that has potentially negative results. The event.
and its aftermath may significantly damage an
organization and its employees, products, services,
financial condition, and reputation.
Communicators concieve, create and disseminate
messages to these internal and external recievers,
and are ready to recieve and respond to feedback
from these audiences.
Crisis management involves communication, but is not
only about communicating.
Crisis communication is a very real problem for
contempory organization. Not reacting to a crisis can
result in the generation of employee rumors,
plummeting stock values, a lack of employee
confidence, and reduction in consumer trust.
Crisis communication planning.
Proactive planning referes to preparetion before the
fact. Proactive planning is sometimes done in
anticipation or in preparation for the phenomenon.
Steps to crisis planning
• Secure commitment fro top management to be
open and honest during crises
• Establish crisis communication team
• Braistorm regarding crises
• Identify stakeholders and prepare appropriate
messages
• Choose methods for communicating messages
• Sequence messages
Steps to crisis planning
• Identify spokespersons and establish a
communicating center
• Record the plan
• Simulate and coach
• Update periodically
Recommendations for crisis communicators
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Respond quickly
Use your plan
Be accessible
Remember your internal stakeholders
Avoid silence and „no comments“
Be truthful
Crisis communication is an important element of
effective organizational communication.
There is a cliche that suggests that the only thing one
can be sure of are „deth and taxes“.
An organization might be wise to add crisis to the list
of inevitable eventualities.