Transcript Federalists - cloudfront.net

Chapter 10
LAUNCHING THE NEW SHIP
OF STATE,
1789-1800
Note: “Ship of state” is a phrase from Henry
Wadsworth Longfellow’s poem The Building of the
Ship. This is the final stanza:
Thou, too, sail on, O Ship of State!
Sail on, O UNION, strong and great!
Humanity with all its fears,
With all the hopes of future years,
Is hanging breathless on thy fate!
We know what Master laid thy keel,
What Workmen wrought thy ribs of steel,
Who made each mast, and sail, and rope,
What anvils rang, what hammers beat,
In what a forge and what a heat
Were shaped the anchors of thy hope!
Fear not each sudden sound and shock,
'T is of the wave and not the rock;
'T is but the flapping of the sail,
And not a rent made by the gale!
In spite of rock and tempest's roar,
In spite of false lights on the shore,
Sail on, nor fear to breast the sea
Our hearts, our hopes, are all with thee,
Our hearts, our hopes, our prayers, our tears,
Our faith triumphant o'er our fears,
Are all with thee,--are all with thee!
I shall only say that I hold with
Montesquieu, that a government
must be fitted to a nation, as much
as a coat to the individual; and,
consequently, that what may be
good at Philadelphia may be bad at
Paris, and ridiculous at Petersburg
(Russia).
Alexander Hamilton, 1799
Introduction
A. The situation for the new ship of state
was not the most favorable
1. Within a period of 12 years, Americans
and overthrown two constitutions: the
British and the Articles of Confederation
2. Constitution smashing does not make
law abiding citizens
3. Many Americans did not trust central
authority
B. Finances of the new nation
were shaky
a. Little revenue*
b. Big debt
*revenue = the money the government takes in in taxes; earnings,
resources, wealth
3. Americans were trying to erect a
republic on a huge scale that
had never before been
attempted
a. Political theory said it impossible
b. Europeans feared new republic would
be an example to their repressed
subjects
c. The world was skeptical
They said it couldn’t be done
Ha! Ha! Ha!
The United States
will never make it.
It’s too
BIG!!!!
I. Growing Pains
A. The Constitution was launched in 1789, and
the American Republic was continuing to grow
at an unprecedented rate
1. Population doubled every 25 years
2. First official census* (1790) recorded 4 million
people
*census = the process of obtaining information about every member of
a population. The term is mostly used in connection with national
'population (to be taken every 10 years)
Population doubled every 25 years
+ 25 years =
+ 25 years =
2. Cities had started to grow
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Philadelphia---population 42,000
New York--- population 33,000
Boston--- population 18,000
Charleston--- population 16,000
Baltimore--- population 13,000
B. America’s population was still 90 %
rural despite flourishing (growing,
rich, successful) cities
1. 95% of the people lived east of
the Appalachians
2. Trans-Appalachian overflow was
concentrated in Kentucky,
Tennessee, and Ohio---all were
states within 14 years
Appalachians
Appalachians
United States
Distribution of
Population in
1790
95% of population east of the
Appalachians
C. Foreign travelers looked down
their noses at roughness and
crudity of pioneer life but were
impressed by the energy, selfconfidence and material wellbeing
Those Americans are so
crude, they’re downright
uncivilized!
D. People of the West were restive*
and of dubious** loyalty and
restless
1. They depended on the
Mississippi River, then controlled
by Spain
2. Spanish and British agents with
lots of gold bought loyalty with
vague promises of independence
*restive = stubbornly resisting control; marked by impatience or uneasiness
**dubious = questionable, of suspect nature
Mississippi River
II. Washington for President
A. The Electoral College
unanimously drafted George
Washington---the war hero---as
president in 1789, and he has
been the only president to be
elected unanimously
B. Washington
1. Imposing man
2. 6’2”, 175 pounds
3. Broad and sloping
shoulders, pointed chin,
pockmarks on nose and
cheeks
4. Preferred the quiet of Mt.
Vernon to the hassle of
politics---did not angle for
this position
5. Balanced rather than
brilliant
6. Commanded through
strength of character
George Washington's Inaugural Journey
through Trenton, 1789
Washington received a warm welcome in Trenton,
New Jersey---site of his first victory during the
Revolutionary War.
C. Washington took the oath of
office on April 30, 1789 on a
crowded balcony
overlooking Wall Street in
New York City
Betsy Ross Flag
Washington's
reception by the
Ladies, on
Passing the
Bridge at Trenton,
N.J. , April, 1789:
on his way to New
York to be
inaugurated first
President of the
United
James M. Ives (1824-1895)
FYI . . .
George Washington passed through several cities-including Philadelphia and Trenton--on the way from his
home at Mount Vernon to his first inauguration at Federal
Hall in New York City, then the temporary capital of the
United States. Aware of the importance of this national
ritual, Washington set many precedents during his first
inauguration including:
• the swearing-in took place outside
• the oath was taken upon a Bible
• an inaugural address was given (to the assembled
Congress inside the Hall) the contents of which set the
pattern for all subsequent addresses; and
• festivities accompanied the inauguration, including a
church service, a parade, and fireworks.
Washington’s Inauguration as President
Washington Taking the Oath
George Washington was the most admired
man in eighteenth-century America. Even
before the Constitution was ratified, his
name was widely proposed for the
presidency. "Of all Men you are best fitted
to fill that Office," wrote one friend, and
indeed, Washington was unanimously
elected to serve as the first president of the
United States. Along the route from his
home at Mount Vernon, Virginia, to his
inauguration at New York City, Washington
was greeted by cheering crowds, bands,
and parades. Barges, decorated in patriotic
themes, accompanied him as he crossed
the Hudson River. In this painting, the artist
captures the enthusiasm and patriotism of
the crowd that has gathered to see the
general take the oath of office. (Library of
Congress)
D. Washington soon put his own stamp on the
presidency with the creation of the cabinet*
1. The Constitution does not mention a
cabinet, but it provides that the president
“may require” written opinions of the
heads of the executive branch
departments
2. This proved too cumbersome, so the
cabinet gradually evolved in Washington’s
administration
*cabinet = a group of advisors for a head of state (like the President)
1. At first there were only 3 fullfledged department heads
under the President:
a. Secretary of
State --Thomas
Jefferson
b. Secretary of the
Treasury --- Alexander
Hamilton
c. Secretary of War --Henry Knox
III. The Bill of Rights
A. The first task that the new government
undertook was drawing up a Bill of Rights, as
many states had ratified the Constitution on
the proviso that it would be expanded to
guarantee those rights
B. Many of the anti-federalists had sharply
criticized the Constitution for its failure to
guarantee certain basic rights such as freedom
of religion and trial by jury
C. Amendments to the Constitution
could be proposed in one of 2
ways
1. By a new constitutional
convention requested by 2/3 of
the states
2. By 2/3 vote of both houses of
Congress
D. There was fear of a new
constitutional convention (federalists
had only a narrow victory in the
ratification struggle), so James
Madison decided to draft the
amendments himself and then he
guided them through Congress
E. Bill of Rights was adopted by the
necessary number of states in 1791
F. Bill of Rights safeguarded
some of the most precious
American liberties such as
Freedom of religion
Freedom of speech
Freedom of the press
Worldwide Freedom of the Press
Reporters Without Borders 2006
The right to bear arms
The right to trial by jury
The right to assemble
The right to petition the government
for redress* of grievances
The right to petition includes under its umbrella the right to
sue the government and the right of individuals, groups, and
corporations to lobby** the government.
Lobbying is an effort designed
influence government authorities and
elected officials. It can consist of the
outreach of legislative members,
public actions (e.g. mass
demonstrations), or combinations of
both public and private actions (e.g.
encouraging constituents to contact
their legislative representatives).
There are also professional lobbyists who are hired by a special interest group to
influence elected officials such as Council on American Islamic Relations, Americans for
Peace Now , American Association for Retired Persons, National Council of La Raza, etc.
There are lobbying groups for almost every “cause”.
*redress = the setting right of what is wrong
**lobby = concerted effort designed to effect influence, typically over government authorities
Prohibition of cruel and unusual
punishment
Old Sparky Controversy
Lee "Tiny" Davis. Executed by
the State of Florida on July 8, 1999
Protection against arbitrary*
government seizure of private
property
*arbitrary = capricious, frivolous, erratic, impulsive
10. To guard against the danger that anyone
might think that the rights listed might be the only
ones protected, the 9th amendment was inserted
which stated that specifying certain rights “shall not
be construed to deny or disparage others retained
by the people”
James Madison's 42 rights did not cover
all of the individual protections that he
believed citizens needed, and certainly the
10 that were approved did not either, so
he included Amendment 9. It states that
there are certain rights listed in the
Constitution, but that does not mean that
there aren't other rights that the people
have that are not listed.
11. To reassure the states righters, he included
the 10th amendment which delegated all
rights not explicitly delegated or prohibited by
the federal Constitution “to the States
respectively, or to the people”
Examples: The states determine the rules for marriages, divorces,
driving licenses, voting, state taxes, job and school requirements, rules
for police and fire departments, and many more.
States regulate many of our rights, not the national government.
The national government does not control these areas because they are
not mentioned in the Constitution, and so they are under the control of
the states.
G. The Bill of Rights was a victory for the
antifederalists and the federalist pendulum
had now swung back
H. The first Congress also helped shape the
new government
We
won!!!!!
I. Judiciary Act of 1789 created effective federal
courts
1. The act organized the Supreme Court with a
chief justice and 5 associates
2. Established federal district and circuit courts
3. Established the new office of Attorney General
4. John Jay was the first Chief Justice of the
Supreme Court (co-author of Federalist
Papers and seasoned diplomat)
United States Court System
Current Supreme Court
Anthony Kennedy, Stephen Breyer, John Paul Stevens, Clarence Thomas,
Chief Justice John Roberts, Ruth Bader Ginsburg, Antonin Scalia,
Samuel Alito, David Souter
IV. Hamilton Revives the Corpse*
of Public Credit
A. A key figure in the
new government
was Secretary of the
Treasury Alexander
Hamilton
*corpse = dead body
I’m
Alexander Hamilton,
the Money Guy.
B.
Hamilton’s bio
1. 34 years old
2. Native of British West Indies
3. Clearly a genius, but critics said he loved his
new country more than the people in it
4. Hamilton thought of himself as a sort of Prime
Minister in Washington’s cabinet, and often
stuck in hand in other departments including
those of his arch-rival, Thomas Jefferson
5. Lucky for us, Hamilton was a financial wizard
Alexander Hamilton
Alexander Hamilton
by Charles Wilson Peale
Author of many of The Federalist Papers
essays and first Secretary of the
Treasury, Alexander Hamilton was
admired, even by bitter political
opponents, for his intellectual brilliance
and his political vision. Hamilton was a
true American success story: an
illegitimate son of a Barbados
gentleman, he immigrated to the
mainland as a teenager where he
enjoyed a meteoric career. Hamilton
served as Washington's aide-de-camp,
became a leader of the New York bar,
and entered New York's social elite by
his marriage into the Schuyler family. In
1803, a political enemy, Aaron Burr,
killed Hamilton in a duel.
C. Hamilton was the key figure
in the new government, and
his first goal was to take care
of the financial problems that
had crippled the Articles of
Confederation
D. Hamilton’s plan
1. Shape the fiscal* policies of the administration
in such a way as to favor the wealthy
2. The wealthy, in turn, would out of gratitude
lend the new government money and financial
support
3. The new government would flourish, and the
propertied classes would get richer
4. Prosperity would trickle down to the masses
*fiscal = money, financial
E. Hamilton’s financial plan:
1. Funding at par
a. First objective was to bolster the national credit,
because without public confidence in the
government, Hamilton would not be able to
secure the money to cover his other schemes
b. Hamilton therefore urged Congress to
“fund” the entire national debt at par
c. Funding at par = pay off its debts at face value
plus interest---an enormous total of more than
$54 million
d. Most people thought the government was not
capable of meeting its obligations and
government bonds had depreciated to 10 to 15
cents on the dollar
e. Measure passed in 1790 and speculators went
wild
2. Assumption of the debts of
the states
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Hamilton wanted the new government to assume*
completely the debts incurred by the states during
the Revolutionary War
States debts totaled $21.5 million
Hamilton argued that the states’ debts could be
considered a national obligation because they had
been incurred** in the fighting of the war
However, Hamilton also thought that assuming the
debts of the states would chain the states more closely
to the “federal chariot”
Wealthy creditors would then look to the federal
government instead of to the states as well---support
of the rich was crucial to his plan
*assume = to take over
**incur = to incur debts is to run up bills
Hamilton’s imagery
Virginia
Virginia’s Debts
Massachusetts
Massachusetts’
Debts
Delaware’s Debts
Delawar
e
3. Reaction of the states to Hamilton’s
proposals
a. States with big debts like
Massachusetts loved the program
I
LOVE
it!!
b. States with small debts like Virginia
were less happy
It’s not
FAIR!!
c.
This led to some “horse trading”*:
(1) Virginia (and Thomas Jefferson)
wanted the forthcoming “federal district”
(where government buildings were to be
located) to be built on the Potomac River
(2) Hamilton persuaded Jefferson to line up
enough votes to pass the measure to have
the federal government assume states’ debts
in return for Hamilton’s support for a federal
district on the Potomac
(3) The bargain was carried through in 1790
* “horse trading” = negotiation accompanied by shrewd bargaining and reciprocal
concessions
So that is why Washington, D.C. is
located where it is
Washington, D.C.
V. Customs Duties and Excise Taxes
A. Because of Hamilton’s plan, the national
debt swelled to $75 million (including $13
million in taxes which he could have
sidestepped if he wanted to)
B. Hamilton was not worried --- he
considered (within limits) a national debt
to be a “national blessing” that would
cement the union. Hamilton was “Father
of the National Debt”
1. The more creditors the new nation
had, the more people there were with a
personal stake in the success of the
nation
2. He felt a debt --- which is normally a
liability ---could be an asset
C. But where was the money to
come from to pay for the
debt???
1. Hamilton’s first answer to this was customs duties
derived from a tariff*
a. Tariff revenues depended on a robust foreign
trade, which was also part of Hamilton’s plan
b. First tariff law imposing a tariff of about 8% on the
value of dutiable imports was passed by Congress in
1789
(1) Secondary benefit (though revenue was the main
goal) was to erect a protective barrier around the US
(2)Hamilton realized that the Industrial Revolution
would soon reach the US and he wanted protection
for the wealthy manufacturers, but Congress was
dominated by agricultural interests, and they voted
for only two slight increases in tariffs during
Washington’s presidency
*tariff = tax on foreign goods upon importation
2.
Hamilton wanted to have additional revenue,
so at his urging, Congress passed an excise
tax on a few domestic items, notably
whiskey, in 1791
Whiskey tax was 7 cents a gallon
a. Tax was to be paid by distillers who mostly
lived in the back country
b. Whiskey flowed so freely on the frontier, it
was used as money
c. It was also a way to avoid the problem of
difficult roads as farmers reduced their crops
of grain to “horseback” proportions
=
VI. Hamilton Battles Jefferson for a Bank
A. The final part of Hamilton’s financial program was
the creation of a Bank of the United States
(BUS)
1. Hamilton used as his model the Bank of England
2.
Hamilton wanted a powerful private bank . .
a. Of which the government would be a
major shareholder
b. Into which the government would deposit
it surplus monies
c. Which would print urgently needed paper
money
d. Which would provide a sound and stable
national currency
B. The bank would indeed be useful,
but the BIG question was :
Was it constitutional???
Did the United States constitutional
allow the federal government to
create such a bank???
1.Jefferson’s answer to the question was NO
a. He said there was no authorization in the
Constitution for the Bank of the United States
b. Jefferson felt that all powers not
specifically given to the federal
government were reserved for the states
(Amendment X)
c. He therefore felt that the states, not
Congress, had the power to charter banks
d. He believed that the Constitution should
be interpreted strictly or literally, so Jefferson
and his followers embraced the theory of
“strict constructionism”
2. Hamilton replied to Jefferson’s objections
a. Hamilton argued that what the Constitution did not
forbid, it permitted (whereas Jefferson felt what it did
not permit it forbade)
b. Hamilton invoked the part of the Constitution that said
Congress may pass any laws “necessary and
proper” to carry out the powers vested in various
governmental agencies (Article I, Section VIII,
paragraph 18)
c. The government was empowered to collect taxes and
regulate trade, and in carrying out these functions,
Hamilton argued, a national bank was not only
“proper” but also “necessary”
d. By virtue of “implied powers,” Congress would be fully
justified in establishing the Bank of the United States
Alexander Hamilton
by John Trumbull,
1792
Hamilton's self-confident
pride clearly shines through
in this portrait, painted at
the height of his influence
in the Washington
administration. (Courtesy of
Donaldson, Lufkin &
Jenrette Collection of
Americana)
3. Hamilton felt that the Constitution
should be interpreted loosely by
evoking the “elastic clause” of the
Constitution. Hamilton and his
federalist followers thus evoked the
theory of “loose constructionism” --which was a precedent* for
enormous federal powers
*precedent = something that may serve as an example or rule to authorize a
subsequent act of the same kind
Strict Construction
• The Democratic Republican held that the
Constitution should be interpreted strictly
• Congress should be limited to its specific
delegated powers.
• Advocates restraints on the power of the
federal government.
• Advocates a greater exercise of power by
the states: "States' Rights"
• Focused on the 10th Amendment.
• The federal government should not do
anything that the Constitution did not
specifically say it could do.
Loose Construction
• The Federalists held that the Constitution should
be interpreted broadly.
• Believed that the Constitution "implied" many
powers to Congress.
• Congress should exercise many powers not
specifically given to it.
• Focused on the Elastic Clause - "to make all
laws which shall be necessary and proper for
carrying into execution the foregoing powers."
• The Elastic Clause allowed congress to expand
its delegated powers.
• The federal government could do anything that
the Constitution did not say it could not do.
So, let’s take an example.
Mrs. Read has a rule against throwing
empty water bottles in her class.
Juary read that rule and decides that,
because the rule doesn’t specifically forbid
throwing empty Coke bottles, he is allowed
to throw all the empty Coke bottles he
wants to throw.
Is Juary using loose construction or strict
construction of Mrs. Read’s rules?
Back to Jefferson and Hamilton
Way to
go,
Juary!!
You
violated
the rules,
Juary.
B. Hamilton’s arguments prevailed,
and Washington reluctantly signed it
into law
1. The Bank of the United States issue had
been hotly debated with a North/South
split
2. The North, with its financial and
commercial centers, supported the BUS
3. The South, which was agricultural,
opposed the BUS
C. The Bank of the United States was
created by Congress in 1791 and
was chartered for 20 years
1. Located in
Philadelphia
2. Capital of $10
million
3. 1/5 of it was
owned by the
federal
government
4. Stock was open to
public sale
VII. Mutinous Moonshiners* in Pennsylvania
A. The new excise tax on
whiskey aggravated the
pioneers who resented being
taxed on what they
considered to be an
economic necessity
B. The tax was designed so
smaller distillers would pay
by the gallon, while larger
distillers (who could produce
in volume) could take
advantage of a flat fee.
*moonshiner = a maker of home-distilled alcohol, especially in places
where this production is illegal---derived from the fact that moonshine
producers and smugglers would often work at night
C.The result was the Whiskey
Rebellion which occurred in
Pennsylvania in 1794
D. The Whiskey Rebellion
was seen a test of the new
government
1. Simple pioneer folks considered
Hamilton’s excise tax on whiskey an
unnecessary hardship on an economic
necessity and a medium of exchange
2. Defiant distillers
a. Erected liberty poles (similar to
liberty poles in Stamp Tax days)
b. Cried “Liberty and No Excise”
c. Tarred and feathered revenue
officers
d. Brought collection to a halt
C. President Washington was
alarmed, and he summoned the
militia of several states
1. There were doubts that
people would agree to crush
a rebellion in a sister state
2. However, 13,000 troops
(more than the entire
Revolutionary Army), led by
President Washington and
Alexander Hamilton,
marched on Pennsylvania
Washington leads his
troops to western
Pennsylvania
(Metropolitan Museum
of Art)
3. The Whiskey Rebellion turned
out to be not a rebellion but a smalltime revolt
4. The “Whiskey Boys” dispersed
with only 3 rebels killed
5. The two men who were
convicted were pardoned by
Washington to try to heal wounds
Tax collector scene from Whiskey Rebellion
In 1794, the new federal government passed an excise tax on whiskey made from
surplus American grains. Farmers in western Pennsylvania rose up in protest
against what they considered an unfair assault on their livelihood. Using tactics
straight out of the pre-Revolutionary War era, including tarring and feathering the
"revenooer" assigned to collect the taxes, the "Whiskey Rebels" challenged the
federal government's authority. President Washington met this challenge by
assembling an army of almost 13,000 men to put down the Whiskey Rebellion.
Critics declared the president's response excessive. Do you agree? (Library of
Congress)
D. Implications of the Whiskey Rebellion:
Washington’s government was
strengthened and commanded new
respect
E. Still, many foes of the
federalists condemned using a sledge
hammer to crush a gnat
VIII. The Emergence of Political Parties
A. Hamilton’s financial policies almost
overnight established a sound credit
rating for the new government, but many
Americans were alarmed at the growing
power of the federal government at the
expense of states’ rights
B. BUT Hamilton’s actions (funding at par,
assumption of states’ debts, the excise
tax, the BUS, crushing the Whiskey
Rebellion) encroached on States’ rights,
and many people began to feel that if
they knew what the new federal
government was going to do, they never
would have ratified the Constitution
The BUS, funding at par, the
excise tax---when will it
stop???????
If I had known then what I know
now, I never would have voted to
ratify the constitution!!
C. National party politics were
unknown to America when George
Washington took his oath of office
D. There had been Whigs and Tories,
federalists and antifederalists, but
these were factions* rather than
parties (That is, they had sprung
into action over hotly contested
issues and had faded away
afterwards)
*faction = a group of people connected by a shared belief or opinion within a
larger group
E. The Philadelphia Founding Fathers had not
envisioned the existence of permanent political
parties
1. Organized opposition to the government
--- especially a democratically elected
government --- seemed disloyal
2. Because of this, when Jefferson and
Madison first organized their opposition to
Hamilton’s program, they confined their
activities to Congress
3. However, newspapers got wind of this
and publicized it and spread their message,
thus making it more public than they
anticipated
F. These were the beginnings of political parties
1. The two-party system has existed in the
United States since that time
2.The early fears and suspicions of
undermining the government were
unfounded
3.The competition for political power
among the parties has proven to be an
integral part of democracy
4.The party that is on the “outs” is the
“loyal opposition”
September 12, 2001
Republican and Democratic
members of Congress join together
to sing “God Bless America”
IX. The Impact of the French Revolution
A. At the end of Washington’s first term
as President, there were two political
parties:
1. Jeffersonians were called
Democratic-Republicans
2. Hamiltonians were called
Federalists
B. As Washington’s second term began,
foreign policy matters would make
differences even more accentuated
C. The French Revolution started in
1789 (just weeks after
Washington’s first inauguration)
1. It would take 26 years for Europe to get
back to normal after this
2. French Revolution was really a World
Revolution that touched all civilized
people
3. Early stages were peaceful, involving the
imposition of constitutional limits on
Louis XVI
4. Most Americans were pleased and saw
similarities with their struggle with
George III---loved liberty and deplored
despotism
Liberté, égalité, fraternité
Liberty, equality, fraternity (brotherhood)
Storming of the Bastille
July 14, 1789
5. Some ultraconservative Federalists were
alarmed, but Jeffersonians were thrilled
6. The French Revolution entered a
more ominous stage in 1792, when
France declared war on hostile Austria
7. Yet, when French citizen armies
hurled back the invaders and France
proclaimed itself a republic, Americans
enthusiastically sang “The Marseilles”
and rejoiced
La Marseillaise
Allons enfants de la Patrie
Le jour de gloire est arrivé.
Contre nous, de la tyrannie,
L'étandard sanglant est levé,
l'étandard sanglant est levé,
Entendez-vous, dans la compagnes.
Mugir ces farouches soldats
Ils viennent jusque dans nos bras
Egorger vos fils,
vos compagnes. Aux armes citoyens!
Formez vos bataillons,
Marchons, marchons!
Qu'un sang impur
Abreuve nos sillons.Amour sacré de la
Patrie,
Conduis, soutiens nos bras vengeurs,
Liberté, liberté cherie,
Combats avec tes defénseurs;
Combats avec tes défenseurs.
Sous drapeaux, que la victoire
Acoure à tes mâles accents;
Que tes ennemis expirants
Voient ton triomphe et notre gloire! Aux
armes citoyens!
Formez vos bataillons,
Marchons, marchons!
Qu'un sang impur
Abreuve nos sillons.
Let us go, children of the fatherland
Our day of Glory has arrived.
Against us stands tyranny,
The bloody flag is raised,
The bloody flag is raised.
Do you hear in the countryside
The roar of these savage soldiers
They come right into our arms
To cut the throats of your sons,
your country. To arms, citizens!
Form up your battalions
Let us march, Let us march!
That their impure blood
Should water our fieldsSacred love of the fatherland
Guide and support our vengeful arms.
Liberty, beloved liberty,
Fight with your defenders;
Fight with your defenders.
Under our flags, so that victory
Will rush to your manly strains;
That your dying enemies
Should see your triumph and glory To arms, citizens!
Form up your battalions
Let us march, Let us march!
That their impure blood
Should water our fields
8. But when the French set up the guillotine and
beheaded the king in 1793, the Reign of Terror had
begun
D.Federalists, even those who had before
supported the French, turned against the
Revolution
E. Jeffersonians regretted the bloodshed but felt
that a few thousand aristocratic heads was a cheap
price to pay for human freedom
F. When England entered the conflict, the
conflagration* spread to the New World and
affected Americans
*conflagration = a large, descriptive fire; a destructive war or revolution that
spreads rapidly, like a forest fire
X. Washington’s Neutrality Proclamation
A. The Franco-American Alliance of 1778
was still on the books (as it was
supposed to last “forever”), and the US
was supposed to help France defend the
West Indies against future enemies. It
was almost certain that the English
would attack the West Indies.
B. Many Jeffersonians said we should
honor the alliance as France needed our
help and was there for us in our time of
need
BUT
C. President Washington believed war
should be avoided at all costs
1. He thought the U.S. was militarily weak
in 1793 and should stay out of war for a
generation or so
2. Premature entry into world conflicts could
prove disastrous for America
3. Strategy of Founding Fathers: Delay --play for time while the American
birthrate increased and “fought
America’s battles” for it
4. Even Hamilton & Jefferson were in
agreement on this
So—Washington decided to issue a
proclamation of neutrality
I just wrote this Neutrality Proclamation.
I wrote it all by myself, and I did not consult
anyone in the process.
Thomas Jefferson is going to be mad!!!
D. Neutrality Proclamation of 1793 issued
by Washington
1. Proclaimed U.S. neutrality toward the
war between Britain and France
2. Warned citizens to be impartial to both
Britain & France
Hey, Europe.
3. It was a declaration
leave us alone,
leave
of aloofness* from the andyouwe’ll
alone.
Old World
*aloofness = being removed or distant,
either physically or emotionally
E. American Reaction to Neutrality
Proclamation
1.Jeffersonians were enraged,
especially because Washington
did not consult Congress first
2. Federalists supported it
Way to go,
George!!!
President
Washington
should have
let us know
before he did
this.
F. Citizen Genêt
1.
A French envoy*/ profiteer** named Edmond
Genêt tried to recruit Americans to help the
French and to entice U.S. profiteers to supply
French ships and supply the French war cause
2. Genêt wrongly believed Neutrality Act did not
truly reflect the wishes of Americans
*envoy = a person representing one government in its
dealings with another government
**profiteer = one who makes what is considered an unreasonable profit
especially on the sale of essential goods during times of emergency
3. Genêt suggested going over "Old
Washington's" head by appealing to the voters
4. “Old Washington” was not amused and
demanded the French withdraw Genêt
5. Genêt was replaced
Dude, I’m the
Sacrebleu!
You’re not
going to
listen to “Old
Washington,
are you?
Citizen Genêt
President &
Commander-inChief. Who are
YOU????
Some arrogant
little Frog!
Au revoir!
President George Washington
G. Truism*: Self-interest is the basic cement of
alliances, and Washington’s Neutrality
Proclamation illustrates this
1.
2.
3.
4.
In 1778, both France and America stood to gain
from an alliance
In 1793, only France stood to gain from an alliance
France did not officially call upon U.S. to honor its
obligation, so technically the US did not violate
treaty
America & France benefited from U.S. neutrality
a. America's neutrality meant it could still deliver
foodstuffs** to the West Indies.
b. If U.S. entered war, British navy would
blockade coasts and cut off needed supplies
*truism= a truth too obvious to mention
**foodstuffs= raw materials of food before processing
XI. Embroilments* with Britain
A.
America’s policy of neutrality was severely tested by
the British, who had continued menacing Americans on
U.S. soil and on the high seas
1. British remained in their northern frontier posts on
U.S. soil
a. This violated the Peace Treaty of 1783
b. British sold firearms and alcohol to Native
Americans who attacked American settlers
(1) When General “Mad Anthony” Wayne crushed
northwest Indians at the Battle of Fallen Timbers on
August 20, 1794, fleeing Indians left behind many
British made arms and corpses of some BritishCanadians
(2) In Treaty of Greenville (1795), the Indians gave
up much of Ohio country
(3) Britain abandoned its forts in the Old Northwest
*embroilment = involvement in conflict
Native American signature marks on Greenville Treaty
Independence sparked renewed
westward migration by land hungry
Americans. The federal government
took steps to legitimate these
incursions into Indian homelands by
persuading selected chiefs and
warriors of the northwest to cede all
rights to vast tracts of this Ohio
Valley land. The document pictured
here provides a sample of the eleven
hundred signatures obtained in the
Greenville Treaty of 1795, a treaty
that ceded almost two-thirds of
present day Ohio and portions of
Indiana. Many tribes protested such
treaties on the grounds that the
signers were not legitimate
spokesmen for their people. (Library
of Congress)
2.
British navy seized about 300 U.S. ships in the
West Indies starting in 1793
a. Pre-emptive strike against American coming to
France’s aid there)
b. Hundreds of Americans impressed* into
service on British vessels
c. Hundreds of others imprisoned
*impressment (colloquially, "press-ganging") is the
act of forcing or conscripting people to serve in the
military or navy.
Impressment
The British Royal Navy was a notorious floating hell.
The pay was low, when it came at all, shipboard conditions
were miserable, and there was the ever-present risk of
death or injury in battle. Small wonder then, that so many
British sailors chose to abandon the Royal Navy for the
rapidly expanding American merchant marine, which offered
better pay and better conditions.
When British commanders began to board American
ships in search of Royal Navy deserters, the Americans
were highly offended. First of all, searching an American
ship was an insult to national sovereignty. Secondly,
legitimate Americans were sometimes "impressed" into
British service on the pretext that they were British
deserters. As there were no obvious differences in physical
appearance, language or clothing, the British Navy was
able to abduct as many as 6,000 Americans in the early
1800s.
Impressment
The Press Gang
or
Cruel Separation
This 1795 caricature looks at
naval impressment and the effect is
had on the home front. Impressment
was the compulsory recruitment of men
into the Navy.
"Press gangs" forcibly seized
and carried individuals into service;
frequently subjects of foreign countries
were taken.
B. Despite all of this, the Federalists were
unwilling to go to war against Britain
1. U.S. depended on 75% of its customs*
duties from British imports.
2. Jeffersonians argued that U.S. should
impose an embargo against George III
3. War with Britain would sabotage
Hamilton’s financial system and was out
of the question
*customs = duties or tolls, or taxes imposed by the sovereign law of a country on
imports or exports
XII. Jay’s Treaty and Washington’s
Farewell Address
A. President Washington sent John Jay, the Chief
Justice of the Supreme Court, to London in 1794
in a last desperate attempt to avoid war with
Britain
1. Jeffersonians feared the conservative Jay would
sell out to England---Jay kissed the queen’s
hand and further alarmed Jeffersonians
2. Hamilton handicapped Jay’s negotiations;
secretly gave Brits the U.S. bargaining strategy
(Hamilton feared war with Britain and was willing
to appease them)
3. Not surprisingly, the US won little in concessions
B. Jay’s Treaty (1794) temporarily eased U.S.
conflict with Great Britain
Provisions:
1. British renewed their pledge to remove their
posts from U.S. soil (a pledge made in 1783 to
the same John Jay)
2. British consented to pay damages for recent
seizures of American ships
3. British refused to guarantee against future
maritime seizures and impressments or the
inciting of Native Americans to violence on the
frontier.
4. Jay forced to bind U.S. to pay pre-Revolution
debts owed to British merchants
C. Jeffersonian outrage vitalized the
new Democratic-Republican Party
1. The South felt betrayed that northern
merchants would be paid damages
2. Southern planters would be taxed to pay
pre-Revolution debt
3. Southerners felt they would be paying a
major share of the debt while the New
England merchants were collecting
money and getting rich
D. War with Britain was averted
1. Washington reluctantly and
courageously pushed for ratification
of the treaty, because he realized
war with Britain was a worse evil
than this humiliating treaty
2. The Senate narrowly approved the
treaty in 1795
3. Washington’s popularity suffered
E. Jay’s Treaty was responsible for Pinckney’s
Treaty of 1795 (ratified by Senate in 1796)
1.
Spanish motive: fearful of an Anglo-American
alliance; sought to appease Americans
2. Normalized relations with Spain
a. Spain a declining power in Europe
b. Spain’s position declining on the American
frontier
3. Treaty provisions: (Spanish concessions)
a. Granted free navigation of the Mississippi to
the U.S. including right of deposit at port city of
New Orleans
b. Yielded large area north of Florida that had
been in dispute for over a decade.-- 31st parallel
recognized as legal border between U.S. and
Spanish Florida.
F. Washington was tired of all the
political bickering, and he refused to
accept a third term as President
1. He set a precedent for the 2-term
presidency (or was it Jefferson?)
2. Washington exhausted physically
and weary of verbal abuse---wanted
to return to his home and enjoy life
Washington’s home--Mount Vernon (Virginia)
G. Washington’s Farewell Address (not
delivered but printed in the newspaper)
1. 2/3 of it was related to domestic issues:
Warned against evils of political parties -partisan bitterness
2. Warned against permanent foreign alliances
(like treaty with France) NOTE: He did not
oppose all alliances, but favored “temporary
alliances”
3. Jeffersonians angered that speech seemed
to declare U.S. hostility toward France
4. Isolationism became dominant U.S. foreign
policy for next 100 years.
Washington’s Farewell Address
Washington's Farewell Address
•Warned against foreign influence
in domestic affairs
•Warned against American
meddling in European affairs
•Warned against bitter
partisanship in domestic politics
•Warned against involvement in
European wars and entering into
long-term "entangling" alliances
The address quickly set
American values
regarding foreign affairs.
Washington’s Farewell
H. Washington’s
contributions as President
1. He kept U.S. out of war
2. The central government was
now firmly established, and the
experimental stage of the
government was over
I. Precedents set by Washington:
1.
President came to rely on department heads
for advice & consult regularly with cabinet
2. Chief executive gained the right to choose his
own cabinet-- This custom grew out of
Congress' respect for Washington
3. Two-term office for president
4. After Jay resigned, went outside the Supreme
Court to select new Chief Justice
George Washington
by John Trumbull,
miniature, 1792–1794
John Trumbull, known
primarily for his larger-thanlife portraits of patriot
leaders, painted this
miniature (c. 1792–1794) of
George Washington, who
posed for it during his
presidency. (Division of
Political History,
Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, D.C.)
But this is how most people think of
George Washington
Portrait by Gilbert Stuart---called The Athenaeum Portrait
XIII. John Adams Becomes President
A. In the election of 1796, the Federalists
didn’t have a strong candidate
1. Hamilton had been a likely choice, but his
financial policies had made him very
unpopular
2. They were forced to turn to “obnoxious
and disliked” John Adams who had
experience but no grace
3. Democratic-Republicans nominated
Thomas Jefferson
4. Campaign was vicious and malicious
a. One Federalist called Jeffersonians “fireeating salamanders, poison suckingtoads”
b. Focused mostly on personalities
c. Jeffersonian issues: The crushing of the
Whiskey Rebellion and Jay's Treaty
5. Adams defeated Jefferson 71 to 66 in
the Electoral College
a. Jefferson, as runner-up, became
Vice President
b. Not a good situation ---President
and Vice President are from different
political parties
c. The 12th amendment to the
Constitution will later keep this from
happening
B. John Adams
1. Adams was 62, bald, short and pudgy
2. He had principles and did his duty, but he had
no charm
3. He also stepped in Washington’s shoes, which
were nearly impossible to fill
4. Hamilton also hated him (and Hamilton
resigned from the Treasury in 1795 and
headed the war faction of the Federalist Party
called the “High Federalists”)
5. Adams considered Hamilton “the most
ruthless, impatient, artful, indefatigable, and
unprincipled intriguer in the United States, if
not in the world”
XIV. Unofficial Fighting with France
A.The French Directory government was infuriated
by Jay’s Treaty
1. They condemned it as an initial step towards a
U.S. alliance with Britain
2. They denounced it as a flagrant violation of
the Franco-American Treaty of 1778
3. To retaliate, French warships began seizing
U.S. merchant vessels (about 300 by mid-1797)
4. France refused to receive America's newly
appointed envoy and threatened him with arrest
B. President Adams tried to adhere to Washington’s policy
of avoiding war at all costs, so he sent a delegation to
Paris in 1797 (including John Marshall)
1. They hoped to meet with the French foreign minister,
Talleyrand
2. They were secretly approached by three go-betweens
(called Agents "X,Y, & Z"), and the French demanded
a large loan of $32 million florins ($10 million) and a
bribe of $250,000 for U.S. privilege of merely talking
to foreign minister
The cartoon depicts a five-headed
monster, representing the
Directory that ruled France in
1797, demanding payment of a
bribe from the three American
representatives.
3. Negotiations broke down, and Marshall came
home---was seen as a hero
War hysteria swept the U.S.
a. Slogan: “Millions for defense, but not one
cent for tribute*”
b. Federalists were encouraged that the
Jeffersonians' ally (France) was now hated
*tribute = a payment by one nation to another in acknowledgment of
submission or as the price of protection; a type of bribe
Property Protected, a la Francoise
This cartoon, drawn during the XYZ affair, depicts the United States as a maiden
being victimized by the five leaders of the French government's directorate. In
the background, John Bull (England) watches from on high, while other
European nations discuss the situation.
C. Undeclared Naval Warfare, 1798-1799 -“Quasi* -War”
1. U.S. set war preparations in
motion
a. Navy Department at the cabinet
level was created: 3-ship navy
expanded
b. Marine Corps was established
c. Army of 10,000 men was
authorized (not fully raised) --Washington was top general but
gave active command to
Hamilton
*quasi = having some resemblance to; similar to
2. Adams suspended all trade with France
and authorized American ship captains to
capture armed French vessels
3. Undeclared hostilities ensued for 2 1/2
years between 1798-1800, principally in the
West Indies
a. U.S. privateers + U.S. navy captured
over 80 French armed vessels
b. Several hundred Yankee merchantmen
lost to the French
c. Full-blown war loomed imminently and
Adams sought to keep U.S. out
XV. Adams Puts Patriotism above Party
A. Suddenly, French Foreign Minister Talleyrand
became eager to negotiate a peace with the
United States
1. He did not want another enemy
2. He let it be known that if the US would send
another minister to France, he would be
received properly
I promise I
won’t ask
for a bribe
this time!
B. Adams knew that a war with France would
bring him great popularity and probably
guarantee him a second term as
President, but he put principle and the
good of the US ahead of politics
1. In 1799, Adams shockingly submitted to
the Senate a new foreign minister to
France
2. Hamiltonian "High Federalists" enraged
by designs for peace; sought military
glory
3. Jeffersonians and moderate Federalists
favored one last try for peace
C. Three new American envoy went to France and
haggled with Napoleon to draft the Convention of
1800 (who was bent on European conquest)
1.
2.
3.
Convention of 1800
a. France agreed to end the 22-year Franco-American
alliance with the U.S.
b. U.S. agreed to pay the damage claims of American
shippers.
Thus, America's only peacetime military alliance for a
century and a half was ended
Significance:
a. Major war with France avoided
b. Rapprochement* made possible the Louisiana
Purchase 3 years later -- if war had occurred,
Napoleon would not have sold Louisiana
*rapprochement = establishment of or state of having cordial relations
4. Adams felt this to be his
finest achievement. He
suggested this epitaph: “here
lies John Adams, who took upon
himself the responsibility of
peace with France in the year
1800.” (FYI, it wasn’t used.)
XVI. The Federalist Witch Hunt
A. Federalists too advantage of the antiFrench frenzy in the US to drive some
laws through Congress designed to
reduce the power of their Jeffersonian
foes and silence anti-war opposition
B. The Alien Acts and the Sedition* Act
were passed in 1798
*sedition = encouraging resistance to or insurrection against the government
or other lawful authority
1. Alien Acts
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
Attack on pro-Jeffersonian "aliens"
Most immigrants lacked wealth and were welcomed by
Jeffersonians
Immigrants were scorned by Federalists who did not
want the "dregs" of Europe voting in U.S.
The act raised residence requirements for U.S.
citizenship from 5 years to 14 years
The President was empowered to deport "dangerous"
foreigners in time of peace and to deport or imprison
them in time of hostilities
Laws in some ways seemed sensible: Some foreign
agitators were coming into the country (like Citizen
Genêt)
Many from France sought anti-British policies
Others were foreign agents who should have been
expelled.
The Alien Acts were never enforced, but some
frightened foreign agitators left
2. Sedition Act
a.
b.
c.
Anyone who impeded the policies of government or
falsely defamed its officials, including the President,
would be liable to a heavy fine and imprisonment
This was a direct violation of the 1st Amendment to the
Constitution, but Federalist Supreme Court was not
interested in declaring it unconstitutional
Many outspoken Jeffersonian editors were indicted; 10
were brought to trial & convicted
(1) Congressman Matthew Lyon was sentenced to 4
months in jail for writing of President Adams
“unbounded thirst for ridiculous pomp foolish adulation,
and selfish avarice”
(2) Another was fined $100 for wishing that the wad of
a cannon fired in honor of Adams had landed in the
seat of the President’s pants
d. The law expired in 1801 the day before Adams
left office– This demonstrated dubious intentions
of bill (in case a Federalist was not elected in
1800, Republicans would not have the Sedition
Act to prosecute Federalists)
e. Popular support for Alien and Sedition Acts
significant
f. Anti-French hysteria played into the hands of
the Federalists
g. Largest ever Federalist victory in 1798-99
congressional elections
Congressional Pugilists, 1798
A cartoonist satirizes the fiercely partisan debates in
Congress surrounding the Alien and Sedition Acts.
(Library of Congress)
XVII. The Virginia (Madison) and
Kentucky (Jefferson) Resolutions
A. The Democratic-Republicans were
convinced the Alien and Sedition acts
were unconstitutional, but the process of
deciding constitutionality of federal laws
was net yet defined
B. Jefferson & Madison secretly created a series
of resolutions
1. As Vice President,
Jefferson in awkward
position & feared
prosecution from
Sedition Act, so he
wrote it (anonymously)
for the Kentucky
legislature where it was
adopted in 1798 and
1799
2. Jefferson’s friend Madison wrote a less extreme
statement that was adopted by Virginia in 1798
C. The premise of the Virginia and Kentucky
Resolutions: States had the right to nullify*
unconstitutional laws passed by Congress
1. The aim was not to break up the union
but preserve it by protecting civil liberties
-- Essentially campaign documents to
defeat the Federalists
*nullify = to make legally null and void; to make of no value or consequence
2. Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions used
the Compact Theory
a. Popular among 17th century English
political philosophers like John Locke
b. 13 sovereign states created the federal
government & had entered a "compact"
c. Thus, national government was an agent or
creation of the states.
d. Nullification: Individual states were the
final judges of whether a federal law was
constitutional and could nullify laws they
deemed unconstitutional
D. Result:
1. No other states passed the Jefferson &
Madison resolutions
2. Federalists argued that the people, not the
states, had made the original compact -- they
argued Supreme Court, not states, could nullify
laws
3. Significance: This argument was later used
by southerners to support nullification and
ultimately secession* prior to Civil War
*secession = formal withdrawal from an organization: in the case of the South prior
to the Civil War, it mean withdrawing from the United States
XVIII. Federalists versus Democratic
Republicans
A. As the presidential election of 1800
approached, the differences between the
Federalists and the DemocraticRepublicans was sharp
The Two Political Parties, 1793-1800
Federalists
Leader:
Alexander Hamilton
DemocraticRepublicans
Leader:
Thomas Jefferson
The Two Political Parties, 1793-1800
Federalists
DemocraticRepublicans
Rule by the “best
people”
Rule by informed
masses
The Two Political Parties, 1793-1800
Federalists
Hostile to extension of
democracy
DemocraticRepublicans
Friendly towards
extension of democracy
The Two Political Parties, 1793-1800
Federalists
Favored strong central
government at the
expense of states’
rights
DemocraticRepublicans
Favored weak central
government to
preserve states’ rights
The Two Political Parties, 1793-1800
Federalists
If the
Constitution
doesn’t forbid
it, I can do it.
DemocraticRepublicans
If the Constitution
doesn’t say you
can do it, you
cannot do it.
Period.
Loose interpretation
of the Constitution
Strict interpretation
of the Constitution
The Two Political Parties, 1793-1800
Federalists
Government exists to
foster business; pro
capitalism
DemocraticRepublicans
No special favors for
business, agriculture
preferred
The Two Political Parties, 1793-1800
Federalists
DemocraticRepublicans
Supported a
protective tariff
No special favors for
business
The Two Political Parties, 1793-1800
Federalists
DemocraticRepublicans
Pro-British
Pro-French
The Two Political Parties, 1793-1800
Federalists
National debt is a
blessing, if properly
funded
DemocraticRepublicans
National debt is a curse
The Two Political Parties, 1793-1800
Federalists
An expanding
government
bureaucracy*
DemocraticRepublicans
Reduction of federal
officeholders
*bureaucracy = the structure and set of regulations in place to control government.
The Two Political Parties, 1793-1800
Federalists
DemocraticRepublicans
Maryland Bank
New York Bank
Pennsylvania Bank
New Hampshire Bank
North Carolina
Bank
South Carolina
Bank
Virginia Bank
The Bank of the United States (BUS)
Rhode Island
Bank
Delaware Bank
A powerful central bank
Georgia Bank
New Jersey Bank
Connecticut
Bank
Massachusetts
Bank
Encouragement of state
banks
The Two Political Parties, 1793-1800
Federalists
Things You
Cannot Say
1.
2.
3.
DemocraticRepublicans
No criticizing the
government
No hate speech
No split
infinitives
Restrictions on free
speech and free press
Freedom of speech and
the press
The Two Political Parties, 1793-1800
Federalists
Concentration in
seacoast areas
DemocraticRepublicans
Concentration in South
and Southeast--agricultural areas and
backcountry
The Two Political Parties, 1793-1800
Federalists
Believed in a strong
navy to protect
shippers
DemocraticRepublicans
A minimal navy for
coastal defense
The Two Political Parties, 1793-1800
Federalist Features
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Leader: Alexander Hamilton
Rule by the “best people”
Hostile to extension of democracy
Favored strong central government at the
expense of states’ rights
Loose interpretation of the Constitution
Government exists to foster business; pro
capitalism
A protective tariff
Pro-British
National debt is a blessing, if properly
funded
An expanding government bureaucracy
A powerful central bank
Restrictions on free speech and free press
Concentration in seacoast areas
• A strong navy to protect shippers
Democratic-Republican Features
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Leader: Thomas Jefferson
Rule by informed masses
Friendly towards extension of democracy
Favored weak central government to
preserve states’ rights
Strict interpretation of the Constitution
No special favors for business,
agriculture preferred
No special favors for business
Pro-French
National debt is a curse
Reduction of federal officeholders
Encouragement of state banks
Freedom of speech and the press
Concentration in South and Southeast--agricultural areas and backcountry
A minimal navy for coastal defense
1.Federalists:
a. Rule by the best people
b. Anti-democratic
c. Strong central government (to crush
uprisings like Shays’s Rebellion)
d. Government should protect business and
the people with money
e. Supported by Atlantic seaboard
merchants and shippers
f. Pro-British
2. Democratic-Republicans (antiFederalists) with Jefferson as their
candidate
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
Wanted weak central government—the best
government is the one that governs least
States should retain the bulk of the power
National debt was to be paid off
No special privileges for manufacturers
Rule of the people (but did not propose that everyone
should vote)
Universal education so the ignorant could be able to
vote
Ideal: a nation of small farmers
(1) To preserve this: slavery was necessary
(2) Slavery in South insured small farmers could
remain independent --- otherwise they might have to
provide the labor
Pro French
B. The approaching election, with its
conflicts over foreign and domestic policies,
looked like it could be the end of the United
States . . . . . . . . .
Liberty Displaying the Arts and Sciences by
Samuel Jennings, 1792
How do historians know... that the 1780s and
1790s marked a crucial turning point in the history
of slavery and racism in the United States?
Emancipation, manumission, and miscegenation
laws adopted by state legislatures, coupled with
debates in pamphlets and newspapers, indicate a
shift in Americans' thinking. A painting such as the
one reproduced here, Liberty Displaying the Arts
and Sciences, offers a unique visual perspective
on the same developments. In 1792 the Library
Company of Philadelphia, a private lending library
founded in the mid-eighteenth century,
commissioned the artist Samuel Jennings to
produce a depiction of slavery and abolitionism
showing the "figure of Liberty (with her cap and
proper Insignia) displaying the arts." The results
reportedly pleased the library's directors. The
painting, probably the first to celebrate
emancipation, shows the blonde goddess
presenting books (symbolizing knowledge and
freedom) to several grateful blacks, while in the
background former slaves dance joyfully around a
liberty pole. Although the theme is abolition and
the African Americans in the foreground have
realistic features, the portrayal of blacks in passive
roles and diminutive sizes portended future
stereotypes. Thus the picture linked emancipation
and the growth of racism. (Photo from The Library
of Congress of Philadelphia)
The End