Transcript THE AMERICAN PEOPLE CREATING A NATION AND A SOCIETY

THE AMERICAN PEOPLE
CREATING A NATION AND A SOCIETY
NASH  JEFFREY
HOWE  FREDERICK  DAVIS  WINKLER  MIRES  PESTANA
7th Edition
Chapter 9: Society and Politics in
The Early Republic
Pearson Education, Inc, publishing as Longman © 2006
A NATION OF REGIONS

In the early republic, the vast majority of
Americans drew their living from the land
–
83% of the labor force was engaged in agriculture
THE NORTHEAST

The Northeast region, stretching from eastern
Pennsylvania and New Jersey to New
England, was dominated by family farms
–
–
–
In New England, farmers increasingly opted for
dairying and livestock
In New York and Pennsylvania, farmers cultivated
land intensively
Farmers in southeastern Pennsylvania and along
New York’s Hudson River valley produced a
surplus which was exchanged in nearby towns
THE NORTHEAST


Across much of the rural Northeast, cash played a
small part in economic exchange
Most farms were not large, generally no more than
100 to 150 acres by 1800
–

Size had decreased from previous century as a result of
inheritance
In fact throughout the region productivity was
declining
–
–
By 1800 nearly 20% of male taxpayers in southeastern
Pennsylvania were single
In some areas as many as 30% of married taxpayers were
landless
THE NORTHEAST




Growing numbers of rural folk also worked for wages
as artisans or day laborers or in small manufactories
Farm women contributed by helping with the
livestock, preserving food, and making clothes for
sale or exchange with neighbors
Reformers pushed for more scientific agricultural
methods
The demand for heating fuel and new land quickly
depleted the region’s forests
–
Iron furnaces, production of potash and turpentine, planks for
houses and fencing for fields further depleted forest ranges
THE SOUTH


The South stretch from Maryland to Georgia along the
coast, and west to the newly forming states of
Alabama and Mississippi
In 1800 much of southern agriculture was in disarray.
–

Low prices, land exhausted of fertility and loss of slaves had
left Chesapeake in shambles
Planters had experimented with a number of grains,
but had little success until cotton was imported from
Europe
–
–
–
In 1790 the South produced 3,135 bales
By 1820 output was 334,378 bales
Cotton export went from 30% of nation’s agricultural exports
to more than half by 1820
THE SOUTH

Fortuitous circumstances for cotton growth
–
–
–
–
–

Growing demand for raw cotton by English and Northeastern
textile mills
Productive virgin soil
Long, steamy growing season
Ample supply of slave labor
Southern planters’ long experience in producing and
marketing staple crops
The invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney in 1793
allowed one laborer to clean up to 50 pounds of shortstaple cotton a day
THE SOUTH

Move to cotton raised the value of southern
land and opened economic opportunity for
countless southern whites
–
–
–
Increased the demand for slave labor and led to
more importations
In 1803 alone Georgia and South Carolina
imported 20,000 new slaves
Much of demand for slaves was met by the internal
slave market as black labor moved from the
Chesapeake farther south
TRANS-APPALACHIA

Trans-Appalachia, a broad and shifting “middle
ground” of settlement, extended from the mountains
to the Mississippi River and from the Great Lakes to
the Gulf of Mexico
–
–
–



1790: barely 100,000 had lived in region
1810: nearly 1 million did
1820: nearly 2 million
Settlers were drawn by the promotions of speculators
North of the Ohio River, settlement followed a grid
pattern and involved free labor
South of the Ohio, white settlers and their black
slaves distributed themselves more randomly
TRANS-APPALACHIA


Transience of the population coupled with
large numbers of young, unattached males
kept society unsettled
Settlers began transforming the heavily
forested land by clearing the trees
THE NATION’S CITIES

Although most Americans lived on the land or in small
villages, a growing number chose to live in the
expanding cities
–

From 1790 to 1830, nation’s population increased 230% and
urban areas of more than 2500 increased twice as fast
The most aggressive urban growth was found in the
Northeast due to established ports of commerce and
booming economy
–
–
–
By 1830 the region contained four cities of more than
100,000 people
Cities were ethnically diverse
Urban life centered on wharves though manufacturing was
growing and artisans slowly gave way before factory based
labor
THE NATION’S CITIES

Changes led to greater gaps between rich and poor
with prosperous merchants at the top of the hierarchy
followed by a middle-class of artisans, shopkeepers
and professionals
–

Rising land values forced lower classes into alleys and
tenements while wealthy began to cluster in fashionable
neighborhoods
In the Southeast, urban development centered on
long established ports, which continued to serve as
commercial entreports
–
Half their population was black, predominantly slaves
THE NATION’S CITIES

In Trans-Appalachia, cities like Chicago and Pittsburg
began to spring up along the Great Lakes and interior
rivers
–

Interior cities held 30% of the nation’s urban population in
1830
Cities were relatively small, dangerous, and unhealthy
–
–
–
New York did not have safe drinking water until 1832
Rising land prices caused gardens and livestock to
disappear, further weakening diet and health
Scarcely half he urban population reached 45, often less for
women who were weakened by childbearing
INDIAN-WHITE RELATIONS IN
THE EARLY REPUBLIC

In 1790, vast areas of trans-Appalachia were
controlled by Native American tribes
–
–
–


In old Northwest, Shawnee, Delaware, and Miami formed a
confederacy capable of mustering several thousand warriors
In the South, Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek and
Seminole numbered 60,000
By 1830, balance had shifted in favor of the whites.
Indians developed strategies of resistance and
survival
Cultural and social separation between Indians and
whites sharpened during these years
THE GOALS OF INDIAN POLICY


From 1790 to 1830, the federal government
established policies toward Native Americans
ostensibly to integrate them into white society but
actually serving to transfer Indian lands to whites
The Indian’s refusal to view themselves as a
conquered people forced the government to deal with
the tribes through land treaties as confirmed by the
Indian Intercourse Act of 1790
–
Native American leaders frequently ceded land for trade
goods, annuity payments and assurances there would be no
more demands for lands
THE GOALS OF INDIAN POLICY
• Federal policy also attempted to regulate the fur trade.
• Rum devastated Indian communities, trade goods transmitted
diseases and Indians often became dependent on trade.
• Over-trapping increased intertribal conflict
• The government attempt to ensure fairer trading through the
factory system had failed by 1822
• The government sought to “civilize” and “Christianize”
Native Americans and assimilate them into white
society
• Missionaries went to try to convert the Indians
• Education was the other weapon of assimilation
• White assimilationists often cared deeply about the Indians
by little about their culture
STRATEGIES OF SURVIVAL: The
Iroquois and Cherokee


Among the Iroquois, prophet Handsome Lake
led his people through a religious renewal and
cultural revitalization
The Cherokee, in control of millions of acres
in Tennessee, Georgia and western Carolina,
found their tribal autonomy undercut
–
–
1801: Tennessee brought Cherokee land under the
authority of state courts
After fierce debate, accommodationists won out
over those who wanted to use force to resist
STRATEGIES OF SURVIVAL: The
Iroquois and Cherokee

1808: Cherokee National Council adopted a written
legal code and developed a constitution in 1827 and
declared themselves an independent nation
–

1829: Cherokee government made it punishable by death to
transfer land to white ownership without the approval of tribal
authorities
Cherokee turned to settled agriculture and moved
from villages to individual farmsteads while others
established stores
–
–
Concept of private property took hold
Some accumulated hundreds of acres of land and scores of
black slaves
STRATEGIES OF SURVIVAL: The
Iroquois and Cherokee

During the early 19th-century, Cherokee
slavery expanded and became harsher
–
–

1824: tribal law forbade intermarriage with blacks
As accommodation increased, slave ownership
became a mark of status
While changes made Cherokee stronger and
reinforced their sense of identity, it increased
the hostility of their white neighbors
PATTERNS OF ARMED
RESISTANCE: The Shawnee and Creek

1794: Washington sent army to crush Indians of Old
Northwest at the Battle of Fallen Timbers
–
–

At the Treaty of Greenville, assembled chiefs ceded southern
two-thirds of Ohio
Subsequent treaties further reduced the land base
By 1809, Shawnee leaders Tecumseh and
Tenskwatawa were warning of danger and seeking to
forge an alliance
–
–
–
Established center in northern Indiana and spread the
message to Creek and Cherokee between 1809 and 1811
William Henry Harrison attacked the center and burned it to
the ground
Tecumseh and followers joined the British at the start of the
War of 1812 and launched devastating raids
PATTERNS OF ARMED
RESISTANCE: The Shawnee and Creek


American victory at the Thames and the death of
Tecumseh broke Indian resistance in Old Northwest
and by 1815 white settlers surged into the area
In the South, the Creeks challenged intruders into
their lands in northwestern Georgia and central
Alabama
–
–
After the aggressive Red Stick faction carried out devastating
raids, Andrew Jackson attacked and defeated them at the
Battle of Horseshoe Bend in March 1814
The Creeks were forced to cede 22 million acres
PERFECTING A DEMOCRATIC
SOCIETY

First major reform movement aimed at
achieving social justice and bringing the
conditions of daily life into conformity with
democratic ideals was launched in early
nineteenth century
THE REVOLUTIONARY HERITAGE



Social reform was inspired by the democratic
ideals of the Revolution
Americans believed strongly in social equality
which meant equality of opportunity and
equality of worth
Also believed in “youthfulness” of United
States which encouraged a sense of
uniqueness, especially compared to Europe
THE EVANGELICAL IMPULSE


Second Great Awakening: wave of Protestant
enthusiasm which swept across the nation starting in
the 1790s and crossed boundaries of race and class
Revival camp meetings focused on saving the soul
but also provided a sense of social belonging in a
society undergoing rapid change
–
–
Emphasized the equality of all believers, held out promise of
universal salvation and declared each individual responsible
for his or her soul
Called on believers to demonstrate faith by lifting up
downtrodden
ALLEVIATING POVERTY AND
DISTRESS


Women held less property then men and slaves held
little more than most basic personal possessions
while free blacks did little better
Property was broadly shared among white males in
rural areas of the North and less so in the South
though most even distribution was on frontier were
most had little
–
–
–
U.S. had no permanent underclass though poverty was
increasing
Economic recessions and winter hit the poor particularly hard
Three groups were conspicuous among the nation’s poor:
Revolutionary War veterans, women and children
ALLEVIATING POVERTY AND
DISTRESS


Between 1819 and 1822, triggered by a
financial panic caused by unsound practices
of state banks, a depression caused
bankruptcies and unemployment to soar
Reformers sought to alleviate poverty and
increased benevolent institutions from 50 in
1790 to nearly 2000 by 1820
–
Tended to draw distinctions between “worthy poor”
and “idle poor”
WOMEN’S LIVES

Women achieved greater equality in divorce
though most states allowed divorce only on
grounds of adultery and South Carolina did
not allow it at all
–
–
While coverture laws made divorce economically
risky, new laws at least enabled women to file in
court rather than appeal to the legislature for a
divorce
The number of women filing for divorce did
increase after the Revolutionary War as a result of
desertion or movement west
WOMEN’S LIVES


To properly prepare women for their role as
“Republican Mothers,” a greater stress was
placed on women’s education and a number
of female academies were established
between 1790 and 1830
Second Great Awakening drew more women
into the church where they raised funds and
acted as volunteers
–
Evangelical impulse reduced women’s roles in the
church
RACE, SLAVERY, AND THE LIMITS
OF REFORM


In the South, the aggressive growth of cotton
cultivation made the price of slave labor skyrocket,
even as post-revolutionary idealism was fading
Two major slave rebellions generated alarm among
southern whites
–
–

Haitian rebellion caused tightening of Black Codes and cut
importation of new slaves
1800 rebellion outside Richmond, Virginia, led by a slave
named Gabriel resulted in the deaths of 25 slaves, including
Gabriel, but no whites.
Antislavery appeals al but disappeared from the
South, even from once-vehement religious groups.
–
Slavery continued to exist in nation’s capital
RACE, SLAVERY, AND THE LIMITS
OF REFORM

Antislavery reform also weakened in the Northeast
where whites increasingly invoked the doctrine of
black inferiority to justify racial exclusiveness and
ensure their own continued control
–
–


Encouraged conciliatory attitudes toward southern slave
holders
Supported growing sentiment for colonization of free blacks
in West Africa, which allayed white concerns but often led to
protests from blacks
Racism appeared in West as well
Slave trade ended in 1808 but efforts to suppress
continuing practice were sporadic
FORMING FREE BLACK
COMMUNITIES

Vibrant black communities appeared in port cities
along Atlantic coast as the black population in these
cities reached 40,000
–
–

Provided better chances of finding a marriage partner and
establishing a family
With the growth of numbers, blacks created organizations
independent of white control and capable of serving the
needs of black communities
Black churches (especially Baptist and Methodist)
emerged as cornerstones of black community life
–
–
The separate African Methodist Episcopal Church was
formed in 1815
Churches nurtured black forms of worship, provided
education for children and offered secure places
FORMING FREE BLACK
COMMUNITIES



White hostility remained a reality of black urban life
In southern cities the majority of blacks were enslaved
(90% in Charleston) and that plus black codes
inhibited community building
In New Orleans, prior Spanish policies had produced
the larges free black (libre) and mixed race (mulatto)
population in North America
–
–
Libres prospered and by 1820 were 46% of the black
population
Their privileges were threatened by new slaves imported for
sugar economy, alarm over black rebellion in Haiti, and
introduction of rigid racial ideologies by new white setters
THE END OF NEOCOLONIALISM



James Madison was elected in 1808
War fever mounted as U.S. ships ventured
back into the Atlantic and British ships
resumed their depredations
The ensuing War of 1812 ended the period of
neocolonialism, when U.S. was still vulnerable
to the actions of England and other European
powers
–
The following two presidencies fashioned a
momentous new role for the United States
THE WAR OF 1812

War Hawks of Congress, predominantly from
the South and West, felt the U.S. had
tolerated enough of Britain’s presence on
American soil, encouragement of Indian raids
and attacks on American commerce
–
–
–
President Madison finally asked Congress for a
declaration of war on June 1, 1812
Opposition came entirely from New England and
the Mid-Atlantic states
War declaration occurred just as Britain, due to
domestic pressure, removed continental blockade
THE WAR OF 1812


Britain beat back several American forays into
Canada and launched attacks on Gulf Coast
British forces occupied Washington in 1814,
burning the Capital and presidential mansion
–
–
Only preoccupation with Napoleon prevented
British from pressing the advantage
Delegates from the five New England states met at
Hartford in 1814 and asserted the right of the state
to “interpose” its authority against “unconstitutional”
acts by the government
THE WAR OF 1812

Oliver Hazard Perry defeated the British fleet on Lake
Erie in 1813 and Andrew Jackson smashed British
forces in New Orleans in 1815 but by then the
preliminary terms of peace had already been signed on
Christmas eve in Ghent
–

Four thousand African Americans (about 20% of U.S.
seamen) fought in the war while others sided with the
British
–
–

British agreed to evacuate the western posts but treaty ignored
issues of impressment, neutral rights and American access to
Canadian fisheries
Francis Scott Key wrote “Star Spangled Banner”
Americans considered this a second war of independence
After 1815, nation focused its energies on internal
development
THE UNITED STATES AND THE
AMERICAS

While Americans were pleased that Latin
Americans seemed to be following the U.S.
lead in seeking independence starting in
1808, they were concerned about racially
mixed populations and history of colonial
oppression
–
–
After initial reluctance, President Monroe proposed
formal recognition of Latin American republics
November 1822, major European powers talked of
helping Spain regain its American empire,
alarming both the United States and Britain
THE UNITED STATES AND THE
AMERICAS

President Monroe decided to ignore a British offer of
a joint declaration and instead issued an 1823
statement on Latin America, known today as the
Monroe Doctrine:
1.
2.
3.
4.
The American colonies were closed to new European
colonization
The political systems of the Americas were separate from
those of Europe
The United States would consider as dangerous to its peace
and safety any attempts to extend Europe’s political
influence to the Western Hemisphere
The United States would refrain from interference in
established colonies in the New World or meddling in
European affairs
KNITTING THE NATION
TOGETHER

Given the country’s primitive modes of travel,
limited forms of communication, and small
central government, problems of national unity
continued to bedevil the American people
CONQUERING DISTANCE

By the 1820s, improvements in transportation and
communication had begun to knit the nation together
–
–

There was a flurry of turnpike construction in northeastern
states, though travel rarely reached 25 miles a day, twice that
by 1830
Congress in 1806 authorized construction of a National Road
from Cumberland, Maryland, to the West and by 1818 it had
reached Wheeling, reducing travel time from 8 days to 3
Water was the main means of transportation and by
the early years of the century, the first steamboats
appeared along the Atlantic coast and in the rivers.
–
Steamboats revolutionized water transport within a few years
CONQUERING DISTANCE

Between 1790 and 1830, significant breakthroughs
occurred in print communication
–
–
–
–

By 1830 there were more than 1000 newspapers, about 1/3
were dailies
By 1820 the ratio of newspapers to people was higher than in
Great Britain
Demand for newspapers was fed by rising literacy rate,
demand for information generated by expanding market
economy, democratic belief in the importance of an informed
citizenry and the growing importance of newspapers to party
politics
Expanded people’s horizons
American postal system expanded to 8500 post
offices in 1820 and the price of sending a letter
declined by half
STRENGTHENING AMERICAN
NATIONALISM



National pride during this era was shaped by the War
of 1812 and the religious revivalism of the Second
Great Awakening
Rituals of patriotic celebration also helped to unify the
country
Also important were landmark decisions by the
Supreme Court
–
–
–
Marbury v. Madison 1803: principle of judicial review
Martin v. Hunter’s Lessee 1816: appellate jurisdiction over
the decisions of state courts
McCulloch v. Maryland 1819: support for loose interpretation
of the Constitution
THE SPECTER OF SECTIONALISM


Despite the rampant nationalism following the War of 1812,
political unity in the nation was fragile
Most divisive was the issue of slavery in the vast, new territory
west of the Mississippi River
–

Concerned over the larger northern population, Southerners insisted
slavery had to expand
Missouri Compromise: Missouri was admitted to the Union as a
slave state and Maine was admitted as a free state, maintaining
a balance in the Senate
–
–
A line was drawn west from 36º 30’ to the Rocky Mountains with
only lands south of the line open to slavery
Missouri was also forced to reassure Congress that a clause in its
constitution prohibiting free blacks would not be used to abridge the
rights of U.S. citizens
POLITICS IN TRANSITION

Jeffersonian Republicans monopolized the
presidency and dominated Congress between
1800 and 1820
–

Federalist party languished
By late 1820s, Jeffersonian-Federalist system
was in disarray and new political alignments
began to appear
THE COLLAPSE OF THE FEDERALISTJEFFERSONIAN PARTY SYSTEM

Following the War of 1812, the Federalists were
plagued by accusations of disloyalty and tainted by
their aristocratic image
–

Federalists continued to believe that political leadership
should be restricted to “the wise and the good,” causing the
party to gradually collapse
Trying to appeal to a broad base of Americans,
Madison’s administration began a program of
nationally sponsored economic development through
road and canal construction, protective tariffs, and the
creation of the second Bank of the United States
–
By early 1820s, some were proposing an even more
ambitious plan of tariffs and internal improvements under the
name of the American System
THE COLLAPSE OF THE FEDERALISTJEFFERSON PARTY SYSTEM


Old Republicans were critical of many of these
actions
Election of 1824, where 5 candidates competed for
the Presidency, triggered the collapse of the
Federalist-Jeffersonian system
–

When the election went to the House of Representatives, an
alliance of supporters of Henry Clay and John Quincy Adams
gave the election to Adams even though he trailed Andrew
Jackson in electoral votes
Adams’ call for a variety of federal programs fell victim
to sectional conflict
WOMEN AT THE REPUBLICAN
COURT

Elite American women forged an American style of
parlor politics
–
–
–

Attended many political events
Utilized networks of friendship, dinner parties and social
gatherings to reinforce political alliances, lobby political
appointments and promote legislation
Contributed to new government’s effectiveness while
challenging the lines separating public (male) and private
(female) spheres
Other women were politically isolated
–
–
Part of backlash against radicalism of French Revolution
Also result of growing importance of male political parties
A NEW STYLE OF POLITICS

White men flocked to the polls in unprecedented
numbers with voter turnout reaching 80%
–
–


Aided by growing strength of democratic beliefs and state
decisions to eliminate property requirements for voting
State programs of road and canal building, bank regulation,
temperance enforcement, and poor relief activated people’s
self-interest
A new generation of political leaders—skilled in party
organization, sophisticated in the use of a partisan
press and uninhibited by a fear of factionalism—
perfected the techniques of mass, democratic politics
The 1828 election of Andrew Jackson marks the first
time the techniques of mass politics were applied to
presidential electioneering
DISCOVERING U.S. HISTORY
ONLINE
Turns of the Centuries Exhibit
http://www.americancenturies.mass.edu/turns/index.jsp

Birch’s Views of Philadelphia in 1800
http://www.ushistory.org/birch/

Nineteenth-Century Views of Manhattan
http://www.nypl.org/research/chss/spe/art/print/exhibits/
movingup/opening.htm

Charlottesville: A Brief Urban History
http://www3.iath.virginia.edu/schwartz/cville/cville.histor
y.html

The Seminole Tribe of Florida
http://www.seminoletribe.com/history/index.shtml

DISCOVERING U.S. HISTORY
ONLINE
The Iroquois of the Northeast
http://www.carnegiemuseums.org/cmnh/exhibits/north-south-eastwest/iroquois/index.html

Native Americans in North Georgia
http://www.ngeorgia.com/history/findex.html

Divining America: Religion and the National Culture, the 19th
Century
http://www.nhc.rtp.nc.us:8080/tserve/nineteen.htm

Colonization
http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/african/afam002.html

A History of African Americans of Delaware and Maryland’s
Eastern Shore
http://www.udel.edu/BlackHistory/

DISCOVERING U.S. HISTORY
ONLINE

Judith Sargent Murray Society
http://hurdsmith.com/judith/
Casebook: The War of 1812
http://warof1812.casebook.org/index.html

James Madison
http://www.jmu.edu/madison/center/index.htm

Nationalism
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/modsbook17.html

The Marshall Cases for the American Revolution
http://odur.let.rug.nl/~usa/D/1801-1825/marshallcases/marxx.htm

The Missouri Compromise
http://www.darien.k12.ct.us/jburt/approject/civilwar/1820/per3/inde
x.htm
